第三军医大学博士学位论文onSpeedometerNeedleMarksforVehicleCollisionSpeedIdentification*姓名：陶代琴申请学位级别：博士专业：生物医学工程学指导教师：尹志勇2011-05
第三军医大学博士学位论文 基于车速表指针痕迹的车辆碰撞速度鉴定方法 及其机理研究 摘 要 道路交通事故已成为世界第一公害，全世界在道路交通事故中每年约有130万人死亡，200～500万人受伤。对发展中国家而言，每年的经济损失高达六千多亿元。在交通事故中，车辆碰撞速度是非常重要的指标，直接影响交通伤害与财产损失的严重度。因此，在交通伤害机理研究、道路交通法律规范、交通事故的责任认定等方面，车辆碰撞速度都扮演十分重要的角色。交通事故中的车辆速度鉴定方法一直以来都是研究热点与难点。 传统的速度鉴定多基于路面上轮胎制动痕迹、事故车辆的变形量、散落物以及车体或轮胎擦痕、行人的抛距、人体损伤的特点等。随着ABS和柏油路面的逐步普及，各种不确定因素增多，刹车痕迹勘察难度越来越大，速度鉴定工作面临极大的挑战，因此急需引入新的车辆速度鉴定方法。 本课题是作者导师团队在开展交通事故司法鉴定中，偶然观察到事故车辆的车速表指针存在卡位现象，由此提出指针痕迹假设。因速度表指针为一悬臂梁，如果车辆碰撞时的减速度足够大，则车速表指针在盘面上会留下相应的印迹。若能将这类痕迹有效显现并提取作为证据固定，则可利用此痕迹快速鉴定车辆的碰撞速度。基于此，本研究通过车速表撞击实验研究验证上述假设，并对其造痕机理进行探讨。鉴于多数情况下指针印迹十分微弱，肉眼识别难度很大，为提高显现率以扩大提取范围，本研究还采用了多光谱检测技术、特定的图像增强技术和水分子覆膜增强显现技术，建立了能有效提高指针印迹检出率的方法。最后从真实交通事故中选择多起典型案例进行分析，就其适用范围进行深入探讨，并建立指针痕迹形态学图谱，以供碰撞速度鉴定应用。 全文分为三个部分。 （一）第一部分，指针痕迹假设的实验研究与力学模型分析。 首先，为了验证指针痕迹存在的假设，本研究从冲击与振动原理着手，以常见的机械式车速表指针悬臂梁结构作为研究主体，通过高速摄像实时观测不同碰撞速度或 7
第三军医大学博士学位论文 减速度下指针运动和盘面振动，对碰撞瞬间指针与盘面受力关系与造痕位置进行了分析。 由减速度波形可知，减速度影响指针与盘面的撞击接触。指针做扭转悬臂梁振动。垂直于盘面方向的悬臂梁振动幅度明显大于水平方向的扭转幅度。在撞击瞬间，车速表盘面隆起，作类似鼓面膜状振动。 实验中观察到的指针与盘面的实际接触部位为指针尖部。只要转轴高度不超过指针和盘面的振幅叠加范围，指针将与盘面发生接触，并留下撞击痕迹。并由此提出假设二（可能存在独立于针尖痕迹之外的针杆中部印痕）。 车速仪指针撞击痕迹的形成机理涉及到指针振动和车速表盘面振动的相互作用，其理论实质在于振幅的叠加效应。因振幅的叠加位在现实中的不可超越性，导致物体之间发生“接触-碰撞-挤压-印痕-分离”。这一作用过程亦可推广到痕迹学领域中有关印压痕迹的形成机制。 通常认为悬臂梁远端（即针尖部位）振幅大，容易发生接触，形成痕迹。但实验中观察到，在中高速撞击下悬臂梁的运动是一复杂的往复运动，盘面也在作往复运动，且振动幅度和频率也不尽相同，从而使悬臂梁中段与盘面也发生接触或碰撞而在悬臂梁中段位置的盘面上留下痕迹。本实验研究除了纠正前人在这一问题上的不完整看法，还据此提出新的假设（将通过第三部分实案分析进行验证）。 （二）第二部分，指针痕迹光学显现与图像提取的关键技术研究。 为了对实案样本数据进行有效分析，必须对指针痕迹显现与提取的关键技术进行研发。 首先采用多波段光谱与特定的图像处理技术，对疑似痕迹的部位进行全方位多光谱分析，筛选出适合指针痕迹图像采集的最佳方案。尤其对紫外荧光痕迹进行了深入探讨，并建立了激光与其它多光谱光源（例如多波长LED光源等）的技术替代方法，解决体积和功耗等问题，使之满足本课题图像采集与处理的需要。本技术是作为第三部分实案样本数据采集中第一实验组与第三实验组不可或缺的关键技术。 其次，对于使用多光谱技术也难以检测到的痕迹，则进行了特殊的水分子覆膜法增强痕迹显现，并及时采集图像进行固定。本技术同样适用于路面潜在轮胎痕迹的增强显现。本技术是作为第三部分实案样本数据采集中第一实验组与第二实验组的补充技术。 此外，在三维几何光学测量技术方面，对事故现场的三维摄影测量与重建技术进行了宏观与微距的深入探索。宏观上，以本技术替代传统现场勘查中的卷尺测量与手 8
第三军医大学博士学位论文 工绘制（作为第三部分实案样本数据采集中第二实验组的补充技术）。研制了十字标与锥形标，并与传统点标进行了误差分析和精度比较。不仅有效提高了误差率，且精度远高于同类研究。本技术同样适用于微距测量，作为第三部分指针同一认定测量中的补充技术，其结果在指针测量上，比普通毫米级直尺测量更精确更便捷。 上述三种技术还有各自具备独立的应用价值，不仅适用于指针痕迹，还能用于其它痕迹类型的显现与提取，或用于其它工程实践。 （三）第三部分，实案样本分析与指针痕迹形态学图谱。 首先，对从真实案例中采集到的59个随机样本进行痕迹有效性研究。为了保证结果的准确性，将课题组分为相互独立的三个组。第一组利用多光谱技术与水分子覆膜增强技术对指针痕迹进行读取，并将其速度值结果记录在特定的标签下。第二组负责从现场采集案件信息，采用传统方法对车速进行计算，并将其速度值结果记录在同一个特定的标签下。第三组负责管理标签下记录的两组数据值，汇总分析。结果表明，正面碰撞中获得的指针痕迹速度值明显比传统算法精确，可作为真实车速进行鉴定。侧面碰撞的痕迹结果与传统结果有一部分交叉，需结合其它信息认定车速。追尾或其它碰撞情况，实案中暂未发现指针痕迹的存在，因此无法得出结论。在实案获取的阳性结果中，最低车速为42 km/h，这一结论将本研究的应用范围从高速撞击延伸到常速交通事故范畴。 其次，在确证实案样本结果有效的基础上，对阳性结果进行了不同标准的形态学分类，并有效解决了本课题第一部分研究中所遗留的新假设验证问题。指针痕迹可分为针尖痕迹与针杆印痕；单一痕迹与多重痕迹；擦划痕迹与印压痕迹；可见光痕迹与荧光痕迹。它们各自具备形态学上的独立属性，对观测者而言，能够有效识别。 最后，作为物证痕迹研究不可或缺的一部分，必须对实案采集到的指针痕迹进行同一认定与真伪辨识。不是所有的指针痕迹都能进行同一认定，但对于部分清晰的针杆痕迹，能够通过微距测量与痕迹比对进行针杆与印痕的同一认定。真实的针尖痕迹是不规则的短曲线，与伪造的点状痕迹有明显不同。除非卸下车速表，否则无法伪造针杆印痕。而针尖擦划痕迹的真伪辨别则较为困难。在连续撞击下，存在多重指针痕迹，可通过能量耗损前后的不同表现形态，对撞击的先后次序进行判别。鉴于指针的轴高、盘面材料与撞击类型都会对痕迹形态造成一定影响，实践中需要结合其它信息对痕迹真伪进行判定。 综上所述，通过对指针痕迹进行实验研究与实案分析，本课题首先建立了一种可靠、实用的车辆碰撞速度鉴定的新方法。其次，纠正了前人在造痕部位与力学关系上 9
第三军医大学博士学位论文 的错误理解，并提供了一种将振动方式与痕迹图谱相关联的途径，丰富了振动力学与痕迹形态学的理论研究。再次，率先对指针痕迹进行了详细的图谱绘制与真伪鉴识。另外，多光谱技术、水分子覆膜技术与平面图像的三维测量等关键技术的引入，大大提高了指针痕迹的检出率和鉴定结果的准确性。 虽在本课题以上方面有所创新，但仍有一定的不足之处。由于同类研究文献较少，实案样本随机分布较散且难以控制，而实车碰撞实验验证难度亦较大。因此，对于本课题研究过程中发现的部分疑难问题，例如指针的卡位与碰撞速度的量效关系，某种盘面材质与特定光谱的反射关系，以及撞击速度与痕迹形态的具体关联，还需进行更深入的研究。本课题所建立的方法，仅用于中高车速正面碰撞事故车辆的车速鉴定，而对侧碰、追尾和低速正面碰撞的车速鉴定暂不适用。 关键词：指针痕迹；碰撞速度；正面碰撞；多光谱分析； 交通事故；物证技术；痕迹学； 10
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Experimental Study and Morphological Analysis on Speedometer Needle Marks for Vehicle Collision Speed Identification Abstract As a major cause of death and disability, traffic accidents have become the world's largest public nuisance. Currently, there are about 1,300,000 people died and about 2,000,000 ~ 5,000,000 people injured in traffic accidents worldwide each year. The economic cost to developing countries is at least $100 billion a year. The United Nations General Assembly in 2010 has proclaimed the period 2011-2020 as the Decade of Action for Road Safety. The collision speed as a very important indicator for traffic accidents directly affects the severity of traffic casualties and economic loss, because the impact energy is proportional to the square of velocity. Therefore, it plays a very important role in the mechanism of traffic injuries, the road traffic laws and regulations and the responsibility in accidents. The speed identification techniques have always been hot and difficult. The traditional methods for traffic accident speed analysis are by the brake marks of tyres, the deformation of vehicles, the fallouts from the vehicles, the scratches on the vehicle body or tyres, to calculate the braking speeds and the collision speeds. With the gradual popularization of ABS and the asphalt surface, and with more and more uncertainties, fewer and fewer brake traces have been found on the road, that the traditional speed identification methods can not meet the new difficult situations. It needs to improve techniques for collision speed determination. The topic in this thesis is from the scene observation by the team of the mentor. Blocked needles have been found in a sudden that experts have imagined there might be needle impressions like fingerprints left on the gauge plates. If the decelerations were high enough to make the needle cantilever impact with the gauge plate and leave marks on it, experts could take use of them to determine the collision speed quickly. Based on this assumption, it established an experimental platform of deceleration impact to verify the assumption and to discuss its inner mechanism. Since the needle marks are usually so weak 2
第三军医大学博士学位论文 for detection by naked eyes that it takes the multiple spectrum techniques and special visualization enhancement processings to improve the detection ratio. Finally, real cases were randomly gathered to do data analysis and typical morphological maps were illustrated to do further study for their applications. This thesis is divided into three parts. Part I - Experimental study on needle marks hypotheses and mechanical model analysis In order to verify the initial trace hypothesis, based on the physical principles in mechanical shock and vibration, the structure of cantilever with perpendicular and torsional vibration of a common mechanical speedometer has been chosen as a theoretical subject, and the mechanics between the needle and the gauge plate as well as the instant contact structures have been chosen as the research objects. The deceleration waveforms have shown that it influences the contact between the needle and the gauge plate. The needle moves as a cantilever beam during the collision. The direction perpendicular to the bottom of the cantilever vibration amplitude is significantly greater than the horizontal direction to reverse range. In the moment of impact, the gauge plate uplifts, similar to the drum membrane vibration. The contact is observed as the tip location. As long as the shaft height does not exceed the amplitude stack of the gauge plate and the needle, the needle should be in contact with the gauge plate, and left traces of collision. According to this, it brings forward Hypothesis II (the existence of middle marks independent of the tip marks). The formation of needle marks is from the amplitude of the superposition effects, which leads to the process of "contact - collision - squeeze - prints - separation" between them. This role can also be extended to the whole formation mechanism process in the field of indentation marks. It is generally considered that the farther the distal cantilever (. the needle tip), the more the vibration energy is, therefore, it is more prone to contact. However, by observation in experiments, the needle cantilever beam is reciprocating complexly with gauge plate including such low-level vibrations and high vibrations with various amplitudes and frequencies which may cause the middle position (. the needle bar) to leave marks on the gauge plate, for the reason that it should be more likely to leave middle marks on gauge 3
第三军医大学博士学位论文 plates than single tip marks. It eliminates the previous incompletely misconceptions about this issue, and a new hypothesis is generated which will be verified by real marks analysis in Part III. Part II - Special techniques on visualization of needle marks and image processing For effective analysis on real sample data, critical techniques on visualization and extraction about needle marks must be developed. Firstly, it has developed multi-band waves and special image processings to do multi-spectral analysis on the suspected locations. Depth discussions are taken especially for UV fluorescence traces, and alternatives have been established for multi-spectral laser with other light sources (such as multi-wavelength LED light source) which have solved issues such as size and power consumption to meet the project needs of image acquisition and processing. This technology is essential for Group 1 and 3 (in Part III) on the sample data collection. Secondly, vapour-coating techniques have been developed to get latent needle marks which are difficult detected by the multiple spectrum technique. Vapour-coating techniques are also applicable for latent tyre marks on road surfaces. They are assistants for Group 1 and 2 in Part III. Thirdly, it has developed a quick and high accurate method for 3D measurements from 2D images. In macro, on reconstruction of the scene by teleprocessing to replace the traditional manual operations based on tape measure (for Group 2 in Part III), three types of feature marks in the matrix array have been projected. The calibrations of the camera with fixed focal length have been calculated and compared before and after revision. The cross-shaped feature is the most accurate mark. And the cone barrel with sharp apex is also more accurate than the traditional round dot. The real case practices have been engaged in to verify the practicability and efficiency of the projects which are very accurate and highly active. And for mini size measurements, as a supplementary technique (accuracy less than mm) in measurement of needle marks identification, it is more accurate and convenient than common rulers (accuracy in mm). These three techniques are of their independent values in applications. They are suitable not only for needle marks but also for other engineering practices. Part III - Real samples analysis and morphological maps on needle marks 4
第三军医大学博士学位论文 First, validity studies on 59 random samples collected from real cases have been down and 10 positive results have been obtained. Based on the experimental techniques developed in Part II, there are three individual groups which are Group 1 (to visualize the needle marks by optical techniques), Group 2 (to calculate the speed by traditional methods and 2D-3D measurements) and Group 3 (to do statistics and morphological categories by image processings). Different speed results are obtained isolated from Group 1 and 2, and results under same labels are then submitted to Group 3 to do morphological analysis is carried out on the final positive data, such as the typical forms of classification, the identification and the authenticity discrimination. Results have shown that, frontal collision results are significantly more accurate and reliable than traditional algorithms that they can be identified as the real speed values. There are cross sections between side impact results and traditional results, therefore, it needs to determine the speed value in combination with other information. No needle marks have been found in rear collision or other situations, so it can not draw valid conclusions. In real positive results, the lowest speed is 42 km/h, which can extend the application range from high-speed impact to general traffic areas. Second, on the basis of the case sample validity, the morphological classifications have been down on positive results under various criteria, and the left issue about the new hypothesis (in Part I) has also been effectively solved. Needle marks include tip and middle marks, single and multiple marks, scratches and impressions and visible and fluorescent marks. Each of them has independent morphological properties that experts can detect them effectively. Last but not the least, as an integral part of physical evidence researches, it must make identifications and discriminations on the authenticity of needle marks gathered from real cases. Not all needle marks can be identified, but for some clear middle marks, it can take identification between the needle bar and the impressions through mini size measurements and traces comparisons. Real tip marks are irregular short curves, which are significantly different from the forgeries. Middle marks can not be forged unless the speedometers are disassembled. It is difficult to discriminate tip scratch marks from forgeries. For multiple marks from consecutive impacts, the time order can be determined by the definition of impressions based on the energy theorem. For the needle shaft heights, gauge plate 5
第三军医大学博士学位论文 materials and collision types would influence the formation of needle marks, so it requires determining the authenticity of needle marks by combining other information in practice. In summary, by the experimental study and real case analysis of needle marks, first, it has established a reliable and practical new method for identification of vehicle collision speed. Second, it has corrected the previous misunderstanding about the relationship between impression positions and mechanism. It has provided an association with vibration mode and traces patterns, which enriches the theory of mechanical vibration and traces morphology. Third, it is the first time to draw detailed morphological maps and to do authenticity discriminations on needle marks. What is more, critical technologies, such as the multi-spectrum technology, the vapour-coating technology and the three-dimensional measurement technology, have greatly improved the detection rate of needle marks and accuracy for identifications. Although there are such innovative aspects, it is still of some deficiencies. Since similar literatures are less and real car crashes are difficult to operate for verification, for some difficult problems found during the research process, such as the quantity-effects relationship between blocked needles and collision speeds, the reflection relation between gauge plate materials and specific spectra and the association between impact velocities and traces morphological patterns, need to be in-depth studied. The method established in this study is only suitable for the determination of the medium- or high-speed frontal collision speeds, but temporarily not for the side, the rear or the low-speed frontal collision speeds. Keywords: Needle marks; Collision speed; Frontal collision; Multiple spectrum analysis; Traffic accident; Forensic engineering; Traces; 6
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Abbreviation Terms 英文缩写一览表 英文缩写 英文全称 中文全称 t time时间 h height 高度, 深度 m mass 质量 ggravity重力加速度 FForce作用力 I Impulse 冲量 ssecond秒 ms millisecond 毫秒 kgkilogram千克 NNewton牛顿(力的单位) m/s meter per second 米/秒 m meter 米 fps frame per second 帧/秒 f frequency of sampling 采样频率 sf frequency of sampling 多自由度系统的无阻 i尼固有频率, i=1, 2, … f frequency of sympathetic vibration 共振频率 rKt rigidity of rotation 转动（扭转）刚度 X linear displacement on X-axis X轴方向的线位移 y linear displacement on Y-axis Y轴方向的线位移 z linear displacement on Z-axis Z轴方向的线位移 α angular displacement around X-axis 绕X轴的转动角位移 β angular displacement around Y-axis 绕Y轴的转动角位移 γ angular displacement around Z-axis 绕Z轴的转动角位移 Δ flexibility 挠度 σ normal stress 法向应力 1
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第三军医大学博士学位论文 Experimental Study and Morphological Analysis on Speedometer Needle Marks for Vehicle Collision Speed Identification Preface [1] As a major cause of death and disability, traffic accidents have become the world's [2]largest public nuisance. Since the speed is an important determinant of injury, the collision speed determination can be of considerable importance in traffic accidents [3]analysis. The United Nations General Assembly has proclaimed the period 2011-2020 as the Decade of Action for Road Safety, “with a goal to stabilize and then reduce the forecast level of road traffic fatalities around the world by increasing activities conducted at the [4]national, regional and global levels”. [5]Ten reasons to act on road deaths: 1. million people are killed on the world’s roads each year; 2. Road crashes kill more people than Malaria; 3. 50 million people are injured, many disabled as a result; 4. 90% of these casualties occur in developing countrie; 5. Annual deaths are forecast to rise to million by 2020; 6. It is the cause of death for young people worldwide; 7. By 2015 it will be the leading health burden for children over the age of five in developing countries; 8. The economic cost to developing countries is at least $100 billion a year; 9. Injuries place immense burdens on hospitals and health systems; 10. Road crashes are preventable. The collision speed directly affects the traffic casualties, so traffic laws and regulations about the speed limits in various countries have been carried out. As the focus and key for traffic accidents and responsibilities, the speed identification techniques have always been hot and difficult. Although there are a number of techniques proposed to carry out such investigations, 11
第三军医大学博士学位论文 [6][7][8]such as skid-mark analysis, deflection analysis, and pedestrian-thrown estimation or [9][10]objects calculation, the practical conditions are more or less limited to interfere these [11]traditional methods to be the optimal approaches. Therefore, new experimental methods, [12-14][15,16][17-20]as well as image analysis, video analysis and computer simulations have been suggested. These new approaches have improved the accurateness of speed [21][21,22]determination, but their uncertainties have been criticized. Moreover, some [23,24]experts have utilized the score marks or scratches on the tires or bodies of the vehicles to estimate the speed. Although these calculations have solved parts of the problem, they are rather complicated in the real work. The topic in this thesis is from the scene observation by the team of the mentor. Blocked needles have been found in a sudden that experts have imagined there might be needle impressions like fingerprints left on the gauge plates. If the deceleration would be high enough to make the needle cantilever impact with the gauge plate and leave marks on it, experts could take use of them to determine the collision speed quickly. At the same time, theories of the physical evidence enlighten a new direction based on needle marks on the [25]speedometer (). On the basis of the Locard's Theory of Exchange, these marks have [26]once been found but of little attention or difficult to detect for them. Research assumption: there may be needle marks on the speedometer on collision. 12
第三军医大学博士学位论文 There are two kinds of speedometers. One is mechanical, and the other is electronic. In this research, it studies only about the former one. For the mechanical speedometer, on the basis of the Locard's Exchange Principle, the [26]needle marks have been found to be a kind of physical evidence in some reports and thought of limited use in speed analysis but without experimental studies on the details. In this study, it brought forward two hypotheses. The first hypothesis is, the tip of the needle may leave marks on the faceplate surface nearby the scale of the speedometer during the collision (Hypothesis I); while the second hypothesis is, the middle part of the needle may leave marks on the faceplate surface of the speedometer during the collision (Hypothesis II). Based on the laboratory impact system and mechanical analysis, the first hypothesis and half of the second hypothesis has been proved . As the needle of the speedometer is resting like a cantilever beam above the speed scale, when collision happened, its tip might hit the faceplate surface, and left marks like the finger print. Analyzers could take use of these marks to determine the collision speed directly from the scale. More can be studied on this subject of collision marks for speed analysis, since it is useful both for collision accident analysis and impact injury treatment. It may be considered that the technological innovation has washed out the research [27]need for the needle marks. For the concept of EDRs (event data recorders) which are now installed in many vehicles and will shortly be mandated in all new vehicles sold in the USA, they can take records of accidents or events. Therefore, they could eliminate the need for reliance on other reconstruction analyses. What's more, the electronic speedometers cannot be analyzed for needle slap. And such speedometers have been commonly installed in many vehicle models worldwide. But the reality is, these are only for the developed and some of the developing areas, for example, in China. And sometimes the analyzers could not take the EDRs away without permission. While for more of the developing and the most of the undeveloped regions, the traditional mechanical speedometers are the broad reality for them. The modern researchers have abandoned this speedometer type, but they are suffering the same rate of accidents or more. Therefore, these lead to the situation of the absence and necessity of experimental and case studies on the needle marks as a simple and accurate way for collision speed 13
第三军医大学博士学位论文 determination. The basic function of the speedometer is to indicate the driving speed. During the collision, the needle hanging over the gauge plate may leave marks like finger print and show the impacting speed exactly. For many decades, automotive, aircraft and industrial engineers and accident reconstructionists have often looked for this type of evidence in a variety of accident situations involving mechanical gauges. In this research, based on the laboratory impact system and mechanical analysis, two potential locations of the needle marks, the tip and the middle, have been revealed. The morphological characteristics have been collected under multi-band light waves on real crashes marks. The precision and limitations have also been discussed by the real crashes data. The whole process for this research has been illustrated in . 14
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Research processes. There are three parts for this study: 1) The mechanical experiments for the speedometer models, to observe the inner relations between the needle and the gauge plate. It comes from Hypothesis I, and generates 15
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Hypothesis II. In this process, the impact system has been built and adjusted to demonstrate Hypothesis I by high stimulation. The inner mechanism has been analyzed. 2) The optical experiments for the image station, to find the optimal deployment for the needle marks image collection. Multiple spectrum devices have been studied both for laser light sources and LED lights. 2D-3D techniques have also been developed to be an assistant for the substantial comparing studies. 3) The comparing experiments and morphological analysis for the samples from real cases. Three groups have been designed to do different work to demonstrate the reliability and to find the limitations for the needle marks in practice. It includes the morphological experiments for the needle marks. Categories have been illustrated. And the discriminations between the real and the forgery have been down to get more interesting conclusions as physical evidence. 16
第三军医大学博士学位论文 References 1. World Health Organization. Global status report on road safety: time for action. WHO Tech Rep Ser, Geneva, Switzerland, 2009: 11. 2. Aarts L, Schagen I. Driving speed and the risk of road crashes: a review. Accid Anal Prev, 2006, 38: 215-224. 3. Svenson O, Salo I. Effects of speed limit variation on judged mean speed of a trip. Accid Anal Prev, 2010, 42: 704-708. 4. Forjuoh SN. Int J Inj Control Safe Promot, 2010, 17(4): 213-214.. 5. Editorial. A 10-year plan to reduce road-traffic accidents. Lancet, 2010, 375(9718): 866. 6. Lambourn RF. When vehicle speeds can be computed from skidmarks, and why. Int Crim Pol Rev, 1979, 325: 48-53. 7. Tiwari V, Sutton M, McNeill SR. Assessment of high speed imaging systems for 2D and 3D deformation measurements: methodology development and validation. Exp Mech, 2007, 47: 561-579. 8. Evans AK, Smith R. Vehicle speed calculation from pedestrian throw distance. Proc Inst Mech Eng D J Auto Eng, 1999, 213: 441-447. 9. Otte D. Use of throw distances of pedestrians and bicyclists as part of a scientific accident reconstruction method. SAE 2004 World Congress Exhibition; 2004 June 30; Detroit. Detroit: SAE International, 2004. 10. Simms CK, Wood DP, Walsh DG. Confidence limits for impact speed estimation from pedestrian projection distance. Int J Crashworthiness, 2004, 9: 219-228. 11. Zhiyong Yin, Zhengguo Wang. Summary of basic research for traffic injury and judicial identification. International Congress Traffic Accident Investigation; 2009 Nov 5-6; Shanghai. Shanghai: Institution of Forensic Science of Ministry of Justice of China, 2009. 12. Lin HY, Lia KJ, Changa CH. Vehicle speed detection from a single motion blurred image. Image Vis Comput, 2008, 26: 1327-1337. 13. Buck U, Naether S, Braun M, et al. Application of 3D documentation and geometric reconstruction methods in traffic accident analysis: with high resolution surface 17
第三军医大学博士学位论文 scanning, radiological MSCT/MRI scanning and real data based animation. Forensic Sci Int, 2007, 170: 20-28. 14. Zou Y, Shi G, Shi H, et al. Image sequences based traffic incident detection for signaled intersections using hmm. Proceedings of the 2009 Ninth International Conference on Hybrid Intelligent Systems; 2009 Aug 12-14; Washington. Washington: IEEE Computer Society, 2009. 15. Morris B, Trivedi M. Learning and classification of trajectories in dynamic scenes: a general framework for live video analysis. IEEE 5th International Conference - Advanced Video Signal Based Surveillance, 2008 Sept 1-3; Santa Fe. Santa Fe: AVSS, 2008. 16. Avinash N, Yadav DD, Murali S. Vision based relative speed detection of moving objects in a traffic environment. International Conference on Information and Multimedia Technololy; 2009 Dec 16-18; Jeju Island. Jeju Island: ICIMT 2009. 17. Balazic J, Prebil I, Certanc N. Computer simulation of the accident with nine victims. Forensic Sci Int, 2006, 156: 161-165. 18. Mei TX, Li H. Measurement of absolute vehicle speed with a simplified inverse model. IEEE T Veh Techno,l 2010, 59: 1164-1171. 19. El-Murr G, Giaouris D, Finch JW. Totally parameter independent speed estimation of synchronous machines based on online short time fourier transform ridges. Eng Lett, 2008, 16: 14. 20. Consoli A, Scarcella G, Testa A. Industry application of zero-speed sensorless control techniques for PM synchronous motors. IEEE T Ind Appl, 2001, 37: 513-521. 21. Randles B, Jones B, Welcher J, et al. The accuracy of photogrammetry vs. hands-on measurement techniques used in accident reconstruction. SAE 2010 World Congress and Exhibition; 2010 April 13-15; Detroit . Detroit: SAE International, 2010. 22. Wach W, Unarski J. Uncertainty of calculation results in vehicle collision analysis. Forensic Sci Int, 2007, 167: 181-188. 23. Levy RA. Speed determination in car-truck sideswipe collisions. SAE 2000 World Congress; 2000 March 6-9; Detroit. Detroit: SAE International, 2000. 24. Liu C, Li Y, Li B, Ma J. Velocity estimation fully depend on the scraped marks of tire. Auto Eng, 2006, 28: 68-77. 18
第三军医大学博士学位论文 25. Henry C Lee, Timathy M Palmbach, Marilyn T Miller. Henry Lee's crime scene handbook. Singspore: Elsevier, 2006: 107. 26. Stoner D, Zeldes I. Speedometer examination - an aid in accident investigation. FBI L Enforcement Bull, 1980, 49: 11-15. 27. Dalmotas DJ, German A, Consulting DJD. Crash pulse analysis using event data recorders. Proceedings of the 19th Canadian Multidisciplinary Road Safety Conference; 2009 June 8-10; Saskatoon. Saskatoon: The Canadian Association of Road Safety Professionals, 2009. 19
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Part I Experimental study on needle marks hypotheses and mechanical model analysis Chapter 1 The impact system and experiments for needle marks assumption Introduction The impact experiments are designed as follows: Step 1: the pre-tests for the system simulation. In this step, the whole impact system should be adjusted again and again to reach the normal values. Step 2: the formal tests for the speedometer impacts. Step 3: the inner mechanics analysis by the simulation impact. The initial impact tests are to observe whether the needle has a chance to contact with the gauge plate. Before formal experiments, the parameters should be rectified to achieve the real settings. In the normal practices for the real rail impacts, the natural deceleration peak values for the collision vehicles are about -250g, and the mean values are around -100g to -200g. So, in the mimic experiments, the decelerations should be adjusted to arrive at the common deceleration region. Materials and Methods Impact System The impacting system mainly included the components as shown in . It included: (a) the fixed upper bracket; (b) the fixed guide rails; (c) the movable plate; (d) the fixed lower bracket; (e) the speedometer; (f) the cushion. 20
第三军医大学博士学位论文 [28]. The impact system. The movable plate could slide through the guide rails and then impacted on the fixed lower bracket. The speedometer was clamped on the movable plate with ropes which were fixed on the base of the movable plate. Besides, the speedometer contacted the ropes slightly so as to maximally eliminate the disturbing force coming from the movable plate thus making the speedometer relatively free to move along the movable plate and hit vertically to the lower bracket. Under the bottom of the speedometer, there was a cushion (± mm) on the base of the movable platform which in some extent was used to protect [29]the speedometer but of little influence to the inner mechanical structure. A mechanical speedometer (5C 83010-3A320 157320-7420 956) was randomly obtained from a real car (Santana 2000, Germany) as a laboratory sample. The impact 21
第三军医大学博士学位论文 system was designed to simulate the needle movement during collision, in order to make clear the details of the forming of the marks. Testing preparations First, with the poles and the cover, the speedometer was clamped on the movable plate with its bottom side paralleled to the movable plate. Then, the accelerometer (Model: 52M31-2000-10-240; Dimension: mm× mm× mm; Weight: g; Sensitivity: mV/g; Measurement Specialties. Inc. USA) was attached horizontally and firmly with strong agglutinant (Modified Acrylate Adhesive, Geliahao Group, China) to the fixed edge of the speedometer model just oppositely to the impacting point to minimize the error. Finally, the data acquisition system (Sample rate: 10 kHz, Synergy P Portable Data Acquisition System, Hi-Techniques, Incorporated, USA) was configured to ready to obtain the g-data. Pretests At the beginning, the movable plate was lifted to a position of ±, height away from the fixed lower bracket. Then the intensity and direction of the lamplight was adjusted until the pictures could be seen clearly on the high-speed video camera (Phantom ; 5000 fps). After this, the movable plate was made to fall free along the guide rails. And the trigger of the high-speed video camera and the trigger of the data acquisition system were switched on through two shunt-wound triggering signal wires to record the impacting process synchronously. Then, the height of the initial position of the movable plate was lifted at ± (the maximal height of the impact system). Data were obtained in the same way. In the experiments, the g-histories and the impact video were obtained using the set-up and methods described above. The serial frames could be extracted from the video. Image processing was taken by the image software (Adobe Photoshop CS4, USA) to observe the details. Results and Discussion The pretests results At the height of , the needle did not touch the surface of the gauge plate, and at 1m and the tip of the needle contacted with the gauge plate. At the height of , the 22
第三军医大学博士学位论文 critical point has been appeared that sometimes it contacted while sometimes it did not contact. At the height of , the tip of the needle heavily hit the gauge plate and deformed obviously and elastically as shown in . The total length of the needle was ±. And the contact part of the needle was ±. It was the tip part away from the fixed axis of the needle. . Collision moment: The needle tip is hitting the gauge plate and being deformed as free fall from [28]the height of . It is two contiguous frames edited from the high speed video. Velocity analysis By the Newton's Laws of Motion, we got the formula (1-1): 2v=v+2as t0 (1-1)v: the instantaneous velocity at the height of h; tv: the initial velocity before dropped; 02a: acceleration, here the acceleration of free fall as g (≈ s: the distance of the acceleration, here the falling height as h; 23
第三军医大学博士学位论文 So the instantaneous velocity of the speedometer falling from the height of h with the initial velocity of could be calculated by formula (1-2): v=2gh (1-2) tNow the impact speed were known as about (≈ and about (≈ . So we got the lowest positive speed in the lab as km/h. The g-history analysis As the deceleration may influence the contact of the needle and the gauge plate, it must be discussed about the g-history (). . Deceleration waveform: free fall from with the peak value of the deceleration of 730g. A: of time, 0g of deceleration; B: of time, -250g of deceleration. C: of time, -730g [28]of deceleration. Although we have gotten the deceleration waveform, the question was that, in the real accidents, the acceleration was mostly around -100g. So the system must be adjusted to decelerate the g-history peak value. 24
第三军医大学博士学位论文 So the cushion should be adjusted to make the experimental environments close to the real vehicle impacts. Chapter 2 The high-simulation experiments and demonstration for Hypothesis I Materials and Methods The cushion adjustment . The cushion adjusted from 5 mm to 10 mm. Although the cushion (~ ± mm, ) on the base of the movable platformin some extent was used to protect the speedometer but of little influence to the inner mechanical structure, the preciseness requested the essential screening to ensure the reliability of the experiments. Therefore, there were several impact tests which recorded the needful information for the examiners to select the most simulating parameters in the experiments to summarize the formal conclusion. Different cushion thicknesses were put in different impact tests as followings. Formal Test procedures At the beginning, the movable plate was lifted to a position of ±, height away from the fixed lower bracket. Then the intensity and direction of the lamplight was adjusted until the pictures could be seen clearly on the high-speed video camera (Phantom ; 5000 fps). After this, the movable plate was made to fall free along the guide rails. And the trigger of the high-speed video camera and the trigger of the data acquisition 25
第三军医大学博士学位论文 system were switched on through two shunt-wound triggering signal wires to record the impacting process synchronously. Then, the height of the initial position of the movable plate was lifted at ± and ±. Data were obtained in the same way. In the experiments, the g-histories (TEMA -036, USA) and the impact video were obtained using the set-up and methods described above. The serial frames could be extracted from the video. Image processing was taken by the image software (Adobe Photoshop CS4, USA) to observe the details. Results and discussion The g-history and velocity results ( × 3 times) . Deceleration waveform: free fall from with the peak value of the deceleration of -173g. A: s of time, 0 g of deceleration; B: s of time, -126 g of deceleration; C: s of time, -173 g of deceleration. The curve in is the g-history for the speedometer impact including the needle faceplate impact. The g-history and velocity results ( × 2 times) 26
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Deceleration waveforms: free fall from m with the peak value of the deceleration of -214 g. There was no contact between the needle and the gauge plate. The curve in is the g-history for the speedometer. The needle did not contact with the gauge plate for the short of energy. The g-history results ( × 2 times) . Deceleration waveforms: free fall from with the peak value of the deceleration of 169 g. A: s of time, 0 g of deceleration; B: s of time, 121 g of deceleration; C: s of time, 169 g of deceleration. 27
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The curve in is the g-history for the speedometer including the needle-faceplate impact. ~ 9 illustrated the decelerations for the speedometers with the cushion adjustment. In these impact experiments, the critical point for Impact II has been discovered as height. These results helped to adjust the cushion thickness to make the vertical impact system most realistically. After adjustment the g-histories for the speedometer model have been highly simulated to the real impact, and the mechanics could be analyzed as strictly as possible. Now we knew the impact speeds were: about (≈ and about (≈ So we got the lowest speed in the lab as km/h. This speed value is very low in practice, so it can be used as an experimental conclusion and confidence for the finding of real needle marks. Chapter 3 The mechanical analysis and Hypothesis II Materials and Methods The theoretical models for the needle Theoretically, the needle should contact with the gauge plate as long as the amplitude of the shaft within the height of the axis. But in fact, because the gauge plate surface itself has a certain amplitude, the conclusion in practice should be amended to the following expression, that is, as long as the shaft height does not exceed the stack amplitude of the gauge plate and the needle, the needle will be in contact with the gauge plate and left impact marks on it. As a dispenser of the marks, the needle rotates with a fixed axis at the same time of cantilever vibrating. It is in a fixed-free end load mode. Simultaneously, the gauge plate as a mark bearing which is a disc fixed with the surroundings, also moves in the form of the tympanic membrane surface vibration,. It is loads of support centers around the fixed load. [30]The way the forces (, , and ) between them is a complex vibration force. And different speedometer may consist with different mode. 28
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Formulae (3-1), (3-2), (3-3) and (3-4) shows the inner mechanical characteristics for the speedometer needle model under different loads. . The beam with a concentrated mass loading. 2m: load mass, (1b•s/in) 2m: beam mass, (1b•s/in) bk: beam stiffness, (1b/in) l: beam length, (in) 4 I: beam cross-section area moment of inertia, (in)4E: modulus of elasticity, (1b/in) ω: natural angular frequency, (rad/s) n3EIω= (3-1) n3ml . Fixed-Free end load. 3EIω= (3-2) n3l(m+)b 29
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Beam cross section area moment of inertia (for axis a-a): It is the edge of "b" which may leave traces on the gauge plate. 3bhI= (3-3) 12With a uniform load of uniform beams, the natural angular frequency is EIω=A ⋅rad/s (3-4) n4μll: beam length, (in) 4 I: beam cross-section area moment of inertia, (in)4E: modulus of elasticity, (1b/in) 22μ: unit length of beam quality, (1b•s/in) A: coefficient, as shown in . [30]. Fixed-Free (cantilever). Owing to the wheeling axis, it is more difficult to measure the torsion than transverse vibration. The process for the signal analysis is similar to the transverse analysis situation. 30
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Torsional response - contingency and exercise - can be measured at the midpoint of the system. But the sensor should not be placed at the nodes. Therefore, it is valuable to calculate the mode by the transition matrix method before the sensor location. Shaft vibration signal can be measured with a slip ring or a wireless telemetry. [31]Torsional vibration speed can be measured by toothed wheels and a fixed sensor. The signal generated by the gear transmits to the sensor, and the frequency of this signal is equal to the product of the number of teeth and the shaft speed. If the axis is in a state of torsional vibration, the carrier frequency would be modulated (frequency change), because the sending time each gear to a fixed sensor has been changed. Frequency (speed) is change into a voltage by the demodulator, and the angular displacement is obtained by integrating. The angular displacement can be measured by the decoder at the end of the shaft, or by the magnetic gear sensor in the middle or the probe nearby. Carrier signal frequency (for example, gear teeth × rpm) must be higher than four times of the maximum measured frequency. In most cases, the original reversed signal will be recorded by tape before processing and analysis. Because the output signal of the magnetic sensor is with speed-dependent and the gap between the magnetic sensor and the toothed wheels is smaller than , it requires the probe nearby, especially at the starting of the synchronous motor. In order to obtain frequency components, it needs to analysis the reverse signal by spectrum analyzer. Control measures Methods used to avoid critical speed or reducing the critical speed vibration amplitude of the various: 1) by changing the quality and flexibility to change the value of the critical speed; 2) vector elimination; 3) using the inherent damping of the system to change the mass distribution; 4) adding various types of dampers. Results and Discussion The mechanical analysis Since the tip marks have been obtained from the experiments, the mechanical structures between the needle and the gauge plate have been simply illustrated in 31
第三军医大学博士学位论文 based on the high speed video. In theoretically, there should be moving waves on the gauge plate surface as a curved plane. Therefore, any part on the curved plane may come into being the ridge (/ridges) of vibration waves. So the needle may contact with the ridge (/ridges) and leave marks. For the middle marks situations, the conjecture was that it might be the vibration from the needle like a beam with an overhanging end. But the needles were not long enough to generate such heavy deformation in the middle segments. So the middle marks could only be more caused by the deformation of the gauge plate material. . Mechanical diagram: (a) The mechanical relation among the needle, the axis, and the gauge plate; (b) The forming of the tip marks; (c) The forming of the middle marks. Other situations could be deduced [28]from (b) and (c). There should be real cases (which will be discussed in Part III) simultaneously left the tip and the middle marks in a separated form like the patterns shown in , but not limited to this form. It has suggested the complicated higher-order vibrations of the gauge plate during the collision as shown in . The deformation could generate more complicated results that had not been obtained from the experiments. Two Impacts The results from the impact experiments have revealed the two impacts during the collision. Falling free from the height of ± m as a positive result, there were two courses of collision during the process. One was the speedometer collision as the impact I, while the 32
第三军医大学博士学位论文 other was the needle-faceplate collision inside the speedometer as the impact II. The impact II determined the forming of needle marks. The gauge plate surface was deformed during the impact II. Hypothesis II - the needle marks locations and morphologies Simply from the Conservation Law, the torque of the needle must resist to the torque of the axis from the gauge plate for equilibrium. So the needle vibrated up and down to find the chance to touch the gauge plate at the time point of B (, , ). It caused the impression shape by the heavy hitting of the needle tip to the gauge plate at the time point of B () like fingerprints (). . The collision marks of the needle and the gauge plate in the impact experiments. From and , it suggested that there should be not only the tip marks (Hypothesis I), but also the middle marks on the gauge plate (Hypothesis II), which should be found in real traffic accident. It is generally considered that the farther the position off-axis (. the tip position), the more is the vibration energy; therefore, it is more prone to contact between the needle and the gauge plate. However, observed in experiments, the needle of cantilever beam includes not only such low-level vibration, but also the high vibrations, and high vibrations should cause the middle position (the needle bar) to leave marks on the gauge plate. What is more, 33
第三军医大学博士学位论文 the gauge plate itself is also doing high vibrations that the middle marks should be more likely to leave on than the tip marks. Conclusions This part is about the deceleration impact experiments and the mechanical model analysis. The common mechanical speedometer has been chosen for a theoretical model, and the mechanics between the needle and the gauge plate as well as the instant contact structure have been chosen as the research objects, which are based on the physical principles in mechanical shock and vibration. Hypotheses have been suggested, and Hypothesis I has been demonstrated during the experiment. The contact is observed as the tip location and the Hypothesis II for the middle contact (demonstrated in Part III) is generated according to the vibrating diaphragm for the gauge plate. The deceleration waveforms have shown that it influences the contact between the needle and the gauge plate. The needle moves as a cantilever beam during the collision. The direction perpendicular to the bottom of the cantilever vibration amplitude is significantly greater than the horizontal direction to reverse range. In the moment of impact, the gauge plate uplifts, similar to the drum membrane vibration. The formation of needle marks is the amplitude of the superposition effects, which leads to the process of "contact - collision - squeeze - prints - separation" between them. This role can also be extended to the whole formation mechanism process in the field of indentation marks. 34
第三军医大学博士学位论文 References 28. Daiqin Tao, Zhiyong Yin, Hui Zhao, et al. The experimental and case study of needle marks on the speedometer as the physical evidence for the collision speed analysis. J Forensic Sci, March 2012. In press. 29. Shengxiong liu, Zhiyong Yin, Hui Zhao. Investigation of the cavitation and pressure change of brain tissue based on a transparent head model in its decelerating impact. J Mech Med Biol, 2010, 10: 361-372. 30. Cyril M Harris, Allan G Piersol. Harris' shock and vibration handbook, 5th ed. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc, 2002: 12-13. 31. Lewis F M. Trans ASME. APM, 1955, 78: 377. 35
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Part II Special techniques on visualization of needle marks and image processing Chapter 4 The multiple spectrum analysis and image station Introduction Optical properties of materials play an important role in much of today's high technology. Since the needle marks are not clear enough for naked eyes observation, in this research, it has taken two approaches of optical techniques in multiple spectrum and vapour-coating detection and photogrammetry to build the necessary techniques for projects in Part III. The research map is shown in . . The research map for optical experiments Two important kinds of surface collision marks have been studied for the decades. One is scratches on the tires which have been discussed formerly, while the other is needle marks by mechanical press which is being studied here. Light wave bands 36
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Visible light is one form of electromagnetic radiation, with wavelengths extending from about to μm (). Visible light contains color bands ranging from violet through red, as shown in the enlarged scale of . The ultraviolet region covers the range from about to μm, and the infrared region extends from about to 1000 μm. [32]. The electromagnetic spectrum from the ultraviolet to the infrared regions. [33]The true nature of light may never be known. Light is considered to form waves and to consist of particles called photons. The energy ΔΕ, wavelength λ, and frequency ν of the photons are related by the fundamental equation hcΔΕ=hν= (4-1) λ-34By formula (4-1), where h is Planck's constant (×10 J·s) and c is the speed of 8light in vacuum (×10 m/s). These equations allow considering the photon as a particle of energy Ε or as a wave with a specific wavelength and frequency. Luminescence Luminescence may be defined as the process by which a substance absorbs energy and [34]then spontaneously emits visible or near-visible radiation. In this process the input energy excites of a luminescent material from the valence band into the conduction band. If the -8emission takes place with 10 s after excitation, the luminescence is called fluorescence, -8[35]and if the emission takes longer than 10 s, it is referred to as phosphorescence. 37
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Luminescence processes are classified according to the energy source for electronic [36][37]excitation. Two industrially important types are photoluminescence and cathodoluminescence. Materials and Methods Photoluminescence In the common fluorescent lamp, photoluminescence converts ultraviolet radiation from low-pressure mercury is into visible light by using a halophosphate phosphor. The high-energy ultraviolet light from the excited mercury atoms causes the phosphor-coated inner wall of the fluorescent lamp tube to give off lower-energy, longer-wavelength visible light (). . Cutaway diagram of a fluorescent lamp showing electron generation at an electrode and excitation of mercury atoms to provide the UV light to excite the phosphor coating on the inside of a lamp tube. The excited phosphor coating then provides visible light by luminescence. Cathodoluminescence This type of luminescence is produced by an energized cathode that generates a beam of high-energy bombarding electrons. This equipment has vertical stripes (about ~ mm wide) of red-, green-, and blue-emitting phosphors deposited on the inner surface of the face plate of the picture tube (). 38
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . The optical system was built on an RGB mode — diagram showing the arrangement of the R(red), G(green), and B(blue) vertical stripes of phosphors for the image station. The intensity of luminescence, I, is given by Itln=- (4-2) Iτ0By formula (4-2), where I = initial intensity of luminescence and I = fraction of 0luminescence after time t. The quantity τ is the relaxation time constant for the material. LED light source A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Introduced as [38]a practical electronic component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions (shown in ) are available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the 39
第三军医大学博士学位论文 energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is 2often small in area (less than 1 mm), and integrated optical components may be used to [39]shape its radiation pattern. Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as replacements for aviation lighting, automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic signals. Stimulated emission of radiation and lasers Light emitted from conventional light sources such as fluorescent lamps results from [40]the transitions of excited electrons to lower energy levels . To understand the mechanisms involved in laser action, let us consider the operation of a solid-state ruby laser. The laser shown schematically in is a single crystal of aluminum oxide (AlO) containing 233+approximately percent chromium ions. The ends of the ruby rod crystal are ground parallel for optical emission. A totally reflective mirror is placed parallel and the front end of the laser, which allows the coherent laser beam to pass through. . Schematic diagram of a pulsed ruby laser. High-intensity input from a xenon flash lamp (shown in ) can provide the 3+necessary energy to excite the Cr ion electrons from the ground state to high energy levels, as indicated by the E band level of . This action in laser terminology is referred to as 3pumping the laser. However, before the stimulated emission of photons can occur in the laser, more electrons must be pumped into the high nonequilibrium metastable energy E 2 40
第三军医大学博士学位论文 than exist in the ground state (E). This condition of the laser is referred to as the population 1inversion of electron energy states. . Simplified energy-level diagram for a three-level lasing system. For visualization, optical properties are important because they provide a nondestructive means for identifications and are responsible for all the features one immediately observes and admires including color, luster, brilliance, scintillation, and dispersion, as well as special phenomena, plays of colors, labradorescence, and the like. In [41]the last decades, studies focus on the fluorescence techniques such as multi-band light waves, and spectroscopic methodology. For color, the photography is important to collect the data. And morphological analysis provides tools on this problem to do further studies. Reflected light intensity Reflected light intensity varying () with the angle of incidence is shown as below: 41
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . The changing relation between the reflection intensity and the incident angle: (a) ℜ; (b) ⊥1[42](ℜ+ℜ); (c)ℜ. 1⊥12 It can utilize more economical way of polarizing filters to reduce the influence of polarized light for traces image acquisition. It is based on the material properties of dichroism. Different materials have different absorption coefficient for different polarizations directions of light. And dichroism is shown as characteristics for these materials. For example, iodine polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) film can be used as a polarization filter film. It allows nearly 80% of the paralleled polarized light through the plane and less than 1% of the perpendicular. But the side effects of this filter are reducing the light to enter. So it usually apply a half block in practice. Although there were two kinds of effects as reflection and projection when light shines on the disk, in this study, it adopted the reflection rather than projection image extraction mass spectrometry detection method so not to waste light energy and get the images with the total reflection effect, to enhance site traces reflection. 42
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The phase transition at the time of total reflection can be used (Fresnel proven) to change the linearly polarized light into a garden polarized light. The angle between the incident polarization direction of incident light and the normal of the surface should be 45 degrees, to make components of the two amplitudes equal. Taking into account the optical physics above-mentioned, xenon lamps used in this study, as the laser beam light source, with the polarization filter lenses, to ensure the physical authenticity of the images obtained. Results and Discussion Image Station . The image station. The image station () was built in the standard black room. A photo platform was set up to collect images. The images were taken by a digital camera (Canon G11, Japan) fixed on the shelf. The shelf could move up and down through the guide rail to adjust the height of the camera. The xenon lamp (ST55-13F, China) was put outside the platform as a flexible light source. During the photographing, all bands were taken for observing the visualization effects under each band. The incident angels of the light source were adjusted. 43
第三军医大学博士学位论文 All bands were tested for the selection of the optimal combination. After that, all images [43]were imported into the computer to observe their morphological details and to read the speed values. LED light sources were also prepared as alternatives. Optical Tests - Incident rays Different materials of gauge plates have different reactions to incident rays as shown in Table 1 and 2. . The multiband waves selection of the incident rays for impression marks A/B(nm) 415 465 515 565 615 20% White 365 - - - - - - - 440 + + - + - + + CSS + + + + - + + 540 - - + + - + + 590 - + + + + + + 40% + + + + + + + White + + + + + + + It can be selected from for the suitable bands to do experiments for visible lights. . The multiband waves selection of the incident rays for fluorescent marks A/B(nm) 415 465 515 565 615 20% White 365 - + - - - + + 440 - - - - - - - CSS - - - - - - - 540 - - - - - - - 590 - - - - - - - 40% - - - - - - - White - - - - - - - 44
第三军医大学博士学位论文 It can be selected from for the suitable bands to do experiments for UV lights. Determinants for the image collection Determinants for the image collection include the optical bands, the incidents angles and the luminous intensities. For the optical test conditions, because the disk is a rough surface, the response is linear to the incident, that is, there is very strong scattering. Under macroeconomic conditions, assuming the response being independent of time (negligible), the dielectric constant - the refractive index or the rate of polarization (dielectric susceptibility) - can be used to describe it. That is, from a macro perspective, the physical properties of the disk do not change in the time course. This is static scattering. For UV, there is no limitation for the incident angle. But the shooting condition should be in standard dark room. The aperture for the digital camera should be higher than normal. And for visible lights, the incident angle is better no more than 10 degrees (0º < θ < 10º) for the impression marks to enhance the reflection (for camera). All directions except the lines paralleled the directions to/from the centre of the gauge plate. The differences between eyes and cameras are enormous as interpret in the optical theories. The marks which can be visualized by optical equipments may not be seen by naked eyes. No matter in what optical system, the discriminating details are of their limitations. So it is to do further studies about the image analysis, to pick up more morphological characteristics, which will be described in Part III. Visualization effects between LED and laser From experiments, although the fluorescent effects from laser are mostly more clear than from LED (_27-right), the result is, images (-left) taken under LED visible lights are replaceable or better than the similar band waves from laser (). The only critical difference is the light intensity but this could be solved by more LED bulbs. In practice, for visible lights, the LED lights are more suitable than the laser, while for fluorescent marks, the laser seems better than the LED - but the latter is not too bad to be utilized for its cheap and low contamination (operators under laser should be protected to avoid the radiation). 45
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Needle marks images visualized by five little LED bulbs of white light (left) and UV light (right). Chapter 5 The vapour-coating techniques for image visualization enhancement Materials and Methods [44]The vapour-coating method once have been used in visualization of some fingerprints of rust [45]or traces on some smooth surfaces. The theory of vapour-coating is very simple which is also based on the reflection of the light as introduced in the chapter above. In this chapter, the vapour-coating techniques are mainly used for the visualization enhancement of latent needle impressions on the gauge plate and for the latent tyre traces on the road surfaces. [46]For latent needle impressions Experiments have been done to visualize the latent needle marks on the gauge plates of the mechanical speedometers based on the contact-mechanics surface tribology. The visualization platform with the light source and the digital camera was built to observe and to collect needle marks. The mist spray with order of magnitude of molecules has been applied to generate water molecular coating. The angles of incidence have been controlled between 0 to 10 degrees. Firstly, the sample images were taken under dry circumstances. Then, the same samples were recorded with mist film on the gauge plate surface. Images were compared to do further analysis. 46
第三军医大学博士学位论文 [47]For latent tyre traces The latent tyre marks have been observed on the pavement to test the validity of the vapour-coating method. A tyre and a section of pitch road have been chosen randomly. The automatic speed-intelligent electric sprayer (Jishiyu VI 3WD-16 , China; the single-orifice were changed with fore orifices each diametric in mm ) has been chosen to generate the mist close to molecular level. After the tyre rolling through the road, images were recorded as the origin group. Then the same road section was selected to be covered with a layer of water molecules by the vapour spray. Images were taken as the comparison group. The two groups were compared to do further observation. Image enhancement techniques Photos were taken by commercial digital cameras (Nikon D90 and Canon G11, [48]Japan)The image intensifications based on structure self-similarity and wavelet [49]analysis were applied as mature assistant techniques for the photo enhancement. Results and Discussion For latent needle impressions Multiple marks have been distinguished effectively under the optical platform. For the visible samples, there were no obvious differences. For the latent samples, there were no marks recognizable under normal conditions. While covered with the water molecular coating, there were distinct collision marks in lab () and real samples (-101009) on the gauge plates, which could be readable of the collision speed. . Marks enhanced before (right) and after (left) halitus in the lab. 47
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The water molecular coating would be of great help to discriminate the latent needle marks on the gauge plate. It enhances the ability of physical marks detection. The method can also be utilized to more morphological visualization applications with the latent physical marks .such as tyre marks and latent fingerprints. For latent tyre traces For the origin group, there was negative result with naked eyes or on the images. For the comparison group, there were positive results with naked eyes or on the images. The tyre marks were clear to observe the patterns (). . Latent tyre marks on road surfaces enhanced by vapour-coating method and image processing: (a) asphalt pavement; (b) cement pavement. 48
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The vapour-coating method has been demonstrated as a valid method for visualization of latent tyre marks on the pavements. It is an assistant technique for Group 2 (Chapter 7, Part III). Chapter 6 [50]The 2D-3D techniques for macro-scene and mini size measurements Materials and Methods Project design [51]The scene reconstruction is the difficulty and key aspect both in traffic accidents analysis and other scene investigation. The traditional measurements are of big errors or difficulties in practice, while the new laser scanning method is expensive and inconvenient. [52]As a convenient technique, photogrammetry has developed into the remote era. In this research, a teltecontroling measurement and reconstruction system has been set up and revised to convert 2D coordinate (x, y) information of feature points on an object recorded in two or more images into 3D coordinate (X, Y, Z). It only needs to take a few photos from the scene and transmit to the operators in the lab far way. Thus a quick and accurate reconstruction can be done under this technique. The measurement process has been designed as shown in . The feature marks have been compared in this research, as well as the accuracy and the scope of application, to improve the technique better than the similar technique. 49
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . The technical project flow chart. Photogrammetry triangulation It is illustrated the mutual intersection of three bundles of imaging rays are illustrated in . This assemblage of camera stations and object points forms a 3D shape. For each point, the bundles will only fit together in one way if the corresponding rays are going to intersect perfectly. It is necessary to recover the same relative orientation between the images that they possessed at the time of photography. 50
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Photogrammetry triangulation; object point XYZ coordinates are determined from interesting rays (iWitness Manual 2006). From three different viewing directions, if three images of an object are recorded with a digital camera, feature points P to P appear in all images. It seems that if the positions of 15the camera stations S, S and S are known in a 3D reference system, with the X, Y and Z 123axes as illustrated, the directions of the three imaging rays to a feature point can be determined. And thus the position, . P, will lie at the intersection point of the three rays 1at coordinates (X, Y, Z). Unfortunately, the matter is complicated because we generally 111do not know the precise locations of the camera stations and operators do not directly measure the spatial directions of the imaging rays. To establish the bundle of rays for each image, it is necessary to determine the angular relationship between the rays passing through the perspective centre of the camera lens. And it is where the requirement to mark (actually measure) image coordinates comes in. Although we might be marking the 2D location on an image, actually, we are determining [53]the angular direction of each way with respect to the camera pointing axis. This is 51
第三军医大学博士学位论文 illustrated in . Therefore, the feature marks should be tested seriously to ensure the accuracy and convenience. . The camera as an angle measuring device (iWitness Manual 2006). 3D feature point determination and measurement There were three types of feature marks as (I) the black round dot, (II) the mark board with a pair of cross-shaped sign with interval of , and (III) the cone barrel (the sharp-apex for feature), as shown in . 52
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Three types of feature marks for calibration. The measurements were considered in the range from to 33m in the array of matrix with 20 to 34 points. Both the plane and the height were tested. The original lengths between each feature mark were determined both by the laser rangefinder and the tape measure at least 3 times for each determination. First, three scene images for each type of feature marks were gathered by the digital camera with focal lens (Nicon D90, Japan). The locations of the photography were with interval angles larger than 30 degrees in the space. Images were imported to the platform (iWitness, Australia) to do further analysis. This step should be repeated at least three times for each series. Second, the standard checkout of the same camera was done on the lab wall as the initial calibration. It generated the initial parameters for the camera and the system, which were restored to do the initial measurements for the scene series. Mark the x, y image coordinates to establish the angular relationship between rays forming each bundle of rays. Relatively orient the images, ., bundles of rays, to recreate the geometry at the time of photography and so define the 3D shape of the arrays of referenced feature points. Assign a desired scale and XYZ coordinate system to the relatively oriented assemblage of bundles of rays, thus scaling XYZ feature point coordinates. 53
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Third, the referencing of the feature marks for each series were done on the platform based on the initial parameters. In this process, the 3D coordinates were calculated from the 2D values of the feature marks. All results were recorded, and the errors were obtained to generate the initial error ratio curves (mean value for each) for further comparison. Then, the revised parameters were generated based on the lowest error chosen from the initial results, to do the revised experiments. In this step, individual experiments were done for each type of feature marks, to observe their accuracy priority under photogrammetry triangulation. At last, the priorities of the feature marks were ranked from the results, and the error ratios for the most suitable areas were also divided from the comparisons. Results and Discussion The accuracy comparisons among feature marks From , the error ratios for three types of marks are illustrated as the criterion for calibration revision. . The mean values of the initial error ratios. 54
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The inner function of feature recognition is only automatic for the black round dot (Type I), and not applicable for Type II and III because of their intersecting lines. So the revision was based on the Type II (the bottom curve in ). [54]Compared with the other researches (Fraser&Hanley, 2004), the advantage of the accuracy was not obvious for the whole curves. While for most of the scene range less than 26m, roughly including the system errors, it was far less than % and % (MAO [55]Mingyuan, 2007), with the initial calibration for Type II and III, especially for Type II. In most cases, this accuracy is enough. But for some close range situations, or for some special needs, ., the calculation of a point which could not be measured directly from the object, the higher accuracy was required for the industry standard. So the calibration has been revised as shown in , to generate more accurate results (lower error ratios)). . The mean values of the revised error ratios. The mean error ratio of % for the three types of feature marks can meet the high accuracy requirement of many applications. And for Type II and III, there were little statistical differences for them with the revised calibration. The optimal image scope analysis 55
第三军医大学博士学位论文 For the 10m range, with six feature points in the region, the maximum error is 3mm (. %). Meet the on-site measurement accuracy requirements (<1%). For the range of about 20m range, with 20 to 34 feature points in the region, the maximum error is (%, ., the error no more than per 20m). Meet the on-site measurement accuracy (<10cm). There were no obvious results that deviated from the mean values. Therefore, the number of the feature marks could be reduced to at least six points on each image. Large areas of the measurement results proved to be unstable. Therefore, play it for safe, an appropriate area to the lowest error section (20m) for each photo is much better than the mean situation (26m). While the results from real case studies have also proved the remote reconstruction is feasible and reliable. The real case applications and efficiency experiments [56]Real applications for vehicle deformations as a timeless difficult problem, have been done in this project to do the incidental testify on the efficiency of this technique. As shown in , was a normal accidental car with heavily deformation. . The telecontrol measurement in a real case. 56
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The traditional experts have been to the scene to measure the deformation by normal laser rangefinder and the tape measure. When the experts arrived at the scene, technicians waiting in the lab have received three pieces of the car photos with 18 feature mark Type II (the cross-shaped sign). And the calibration has been done based on these marks. When the experts were measuring the car, the 3D measurement results from the remote lab have been sent to the scene. More applications have been tested to demonstrate the efficiency of this technique. For mini size applications The results are similar to the macro-scene (Fig. 35-I). In real applications, it is used for -1the measurements of needles and needle marks whose is usually required to 10 mm, and the error ratios meet the demand and more convenient and accurate than the measurement with ordinary rulers. The real case application details have been discussed in Chapter 9 in Part III. Conclusions This part is about the critical techniques on visualization and extraction about needle marks. Multi-band waves methods have been studied to do multi-spectral analysis on the suspected locations. Depth discussions are taken especially for UV fluorescence traces, and alternatives have been established for multi-spectral laser with other light sources (such as multi-wavelength LED light source) which have solved issues such as size and power consumption to meet the project needs of image acquisition and processing. Vapour-coating techniques have been developed to get latent needle marks which are difficult detected by the multiple spectrum technique and for latent tyre marks on road surfaces. It also has developed a quick and high accurate method for 3D measurements from 2D images suitable for macro and mini size. These three techniques are of their independent value in applications. They are suitable not on for needle marks but also for other engineering practices. 57
第三军医大学博士学位论文 References 32. William F Smith, Hashemi J. Foundation of materials science and engineering, 5ed. Columbus: McGraw-Hill Company. 2010: 698. 33. K Kumara, Satish V Kailas. The role of friction stir welding tool on material flow and weld formation. Mater Sci Eng A, 2008, 485(1-2): 367-374. 34. K. Doi, A Toshinai. Frequency Response Method of High Speed Spectrophotometry for Luminescent Materials. Appl Opt, 1970, 9: 2762-2767. 35. Joseph R Lakowicz, Barry R Masters. Principles of Fluorescence Spectroscopy, 3rd ed. J Biomed Opt, 2008, 13: 029901. 36. Harbuzaru B, Corma A, Rey F, et al. Metal–organic nanoporous structures with anisotropic photoluminescence and magnetic properties and their use as sensors. Angewandte Chemie International Edition, 2008, 47: 1080–1083. 37. A J Hauser, J Zhang, L Mier, et al. Characterization of electronic structure and defect states of thin epitaxial BiFeO films by UV-visible absorption and cathodoluminescence 3spectroscopes. Appl Phys Lett, 2008, 92: 222901. 38. Nick Holonyak Jr. 2004 Lemelson-MIT Prize Winner. Lemenson-MIT Program. (Retrieved 2007-08-13) 39. Ivan Moreno, Ching-Cherng Sun. Modeling the radiation pattern of LEDs. Optics Express, 2008, 16 (3): 1808-1819. 40. Elphick S, Ciufo P, Perera S. The electrical performance of modern compact fluorescent lamps. Aust J Electr Electro Eng, 2010, 7(1): 43-51. 41. Joseph R, Lakowicz, Barry R Masters. Principles of fluorescence spectroscopy, 3rd ed. J Biomed Opt, 2008, 13(2): 029901. 42. O D Chwolson, Lehrb D. Physik (Braunschweig, Vieweg), Aufl. 1922: 716.(In German) 43. Hui Zhao, Zhiyong Yin, Guangyu Yang, et al. Vehicle collision speed detection by spectral technique. (G01P3/36) 201010148544. (In Chinese) (赵辉, 尹志勇,杨光瑜, 等. 车辆碰撞速度的光谱检测方法[P]. <G01P3/36> 201010148544. 公示中.) 58
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第三军医大学博士学位论文 und Geoinformation . Photogrammetrie - Fernerkundung - Geoinformation, 2009, 6: 485-486.) 53. P DiMatteo, P Rademacher. Method of sensing the position and orientation of elements in space. US Patent 4396945, 1983. 54. C S Fraser, H B Hanley. Developments in close-range photogrammetry for 3D modelling: the iWitness example. Thaniland (Pitsanulok): International workshop on processing and visualization using high-resolution imagery, edited by A Gruen, 2004: 18-21. 55. MAO Ming-yuan, CHEN Yi-jiu, LIU Ning-guo, et al. Reconstruction of traffic accident scenes using digital photogrammetry. Chinese J Forensic Sci, 2007, 3: 44-47. (In Chinese) (毛明远, 陈忆九, 刘宁国, 等. 应用数字摄影测量技术进行道路交通事故现场重建[J]. 中国司法鉴定, 2007, 3: 44-47.) 56. A Kullgren, A Lie, C Tingvall. Photogrammetry for documentation of vehicle deformations—a tool in a system for advanced accident data collection. Accid Anal Prev, 1994, 26: 99-106. 60
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Part III Real samples analysis and morphological maps on needle marks Chapter 7 The comparing experiments and statistics in real cases Introduction As the existence of the needle marks has been demonstrated under laboratory conditions, the real situations should be researched to testify their reliability and application scopes. To ensure the authenticity for statistical results, the comparing experiments have been designed, as shown in , to study the applications of needle marks. The purpose of these experiments is to observe the deep relations for the real limitations. . The comparing experiments design. [28]Some important results have been obtained in these experiments (from March to December, 2010, Chongqing, China). The most suitable application limitations have also been selected from these results. They are of great help for the accident experts to adopt the needle marks techniques correctly and accurately. 61
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Materials and Methods There were three groups. The first group, as Group 1, was responsible for image- collection and speed-reading from the gauge plate, while the second group, as Group 2, obtained the speed values by other lawful methods to the national standard (GA/T643-2006, The Speed Technical Evaluation for Vehicles Involved in Representative Road Accidents, China) including skid-mark analysis, deflection analysis, and pedestrian-thrown estimation [28]or objects calculation, etc, based on the conditions of the cases. The two groups were all required to provide the upper and the lower limits of the positive results rigorously as far as possible to the third group, as Group 3, to do complete the comparing experiments. Group 1 Work Details For Group 1, speedometer samples were collected (from March to October, 2010, China) validly without contamination or pre-existed accidents by checking the survey reports of the vehicles. Then all of them were labeled under data and order, ., if two sample speedometers have been collected from the accident scene on August 4th, 2010, then one of them was labeled as Label 100804-1, while the other was Label 100804-2, and the rest can be done in the same manner. The label information should be delivered to Group 2 by Group 3, to be the only tie of Group 1 and Group 2. After labeling, the sample should immediately be put onto the image station to collect their marks information effectively. After detection, the details were recorded under the label as a secret. The positive and negative results have all been recorded as something suspected until the comparison. While only the positive results were sent to Group 3. The engineering details for Group 1 were shown in . 62
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . The engineering details for Group 1. Group 2 Work Details For Group 2, the process for each case were like daily work in traffic accidents analysis, expect that, it was down under a certain label number without knowing the appearance of the speedometer in this case, to wall up the danger of laboratory information contamination. The calculation results from Group 2 should record under the labels and sent to Group 3 for the final analysis. After analysis, more information would be sent to Group 3 if needed. Results should be as authentic as normal cases - and indeed, all of them were from the legal cases, that is, the results from Group 2 were available on the courts. The engineering details for Group 2 were shown in . 63
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . The engineering details for Group 2. The scene measurements were done both based on the real scene tape measured data and the remote 2D-3D reconstruction data, to cover the largest scopes for the speed calculation results. Group 3 Work Details And for Group 3, the data were sorted out under each label, to extract the double-positive results as the final effective results, into the last process of comparison. After comparing, the final effective labels were filtered and fed back to Group 1 and 2. Then Group 1 and 2 were required to provide the upper and the lower limits of the positive results under these effective results rigorously as far as possible. Then these data were analyzed by Group 3, to generate further theories in purpose. 64
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . The engineering details for Group 3. The engineering details for Group 3 were shown in . Results and Discussion The designation of isolated three groups which should only communicate under a certain label can ensure the authenticity of the comparison. The inner engineering for each group has been tested and verified in Part II, which makes the whole project timely and accurately. This experimental model can be quickly applied at any scene for any case. It excludes the subjective influences from the operators. Data Composition There were 25 effective labels (extracted from all the 59 random samples) with 13 frontal impacts, 5 side impacts (with 3 head-side impacts) and 7 rear impacts. Among them, there were 10 positive results (with discernible needle marks on gauge plates) which provided more unforeseen information that could not be easily obtained in the laboratory as shown in . 65
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Speedometers for the 10 positive samples. 66
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The composition details of the data were clearly shown in . . The data composition in the study. Ineffective Data (34/59) For the 34 ineffective cases, 2 of them were lack of permission to take the speedometer away from the scene; 13 of them were contaminated by rain or blood, etc; 4 of them had pre-accidents; and 9 of them were short of data for the estimation by the second group. While the needles of the other 6 samples were found blocked hanging over a certain scale on the gauge plate (like the situation in -100313-a) without impacting impressions detected, which could not be contained in the needle marks concept in this research. Therefore, all the 34 samples have been treated as ineffective. During the experiments, there was a special situation as blocked needles. The experimental research has been down and a preliminary conclusion has been gotten. Special Experiments for Blocked Needles 6 samples were found blocked hanging over a certain scale on the gauge plate without impacting impressions detected, which could not be contained in the needle marks concept in this research. Therefore, all the 34 samples have been treated as ineffective. Effective Data – Negative (15/25) The materials of the gauge plate influenced the forming of the needle marks more than the materials of the needle. 67
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The pre-tests on the odometers besides the speedometers got the bijection results that: If there were the needle marks left on the odometers by the gently finger pressure, there were the needle marks on the speedometer, and vice versa. The back-checking for all the 15 negative samples showed that their needles could not leave any mark on the gauge plates or could not be detected under the current visualization condition. Positive (10/25) [28]. The accuracy analysis for the ten positive results. In order to simplify the discussion, there were only two types of vehicle either in car or motorcycle, for the geometrical model of their mechanics on the head. The vehicle type of car included the normal car, the van (Label 100804-2, 100908), the bus (Label 100625), and so on. 68
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The maximum and minimum values in are more or less influenced by χ (the deflection volume estimated from the deflection depth and width of the vehicle, GA/T643-2006), etc, in the conventional and lawful standard practice. For each case, the deflection with the width and the depth had the maximum and the minimum values thus the speed values were various. For the 10 positive samples under the frontal impact situations, the speed values read from the needle marks are valid and more precise than from the traditional methods as shown in . For needle marks, it needs to discuss their lower limits. For the lowest speed value as 42 km/h from the real sample 6, as well as the former experimental speed as about 27 km/h, that the normal low speed collision could also leave marks on the gauge plate. So the low speed collisions should not be excluded when detecting for the needle marks. It does not mean that the traditional methods are of no use in practice, but means that the needle marks have been demonstrated as authentic and closer to the real collision speed, especially in the frontal impact situation. For the practical limitations Although the data from the experiments and the real cases have eliminated the suspicion of the existence for the needle marks, and have illustrated the mechanical functions and structures, the practical limitations should be discussed. Considering the 15 negative results under the 23 effective labels, detecting conditions have been back-checked. For the forming of the needle marks, the materials of the gauge plate influenced the forming of the needle marks more than the materials of the needle. The pre-tests on the odometers besides the speedometers got the bijection results that if there were the needle marks left on the odometers by the gently finger pressure, there were the needle marks on the speedometer, and vice versa. Therefore, the back-checking for all the 15 negative samples showed that their needles could not leave any mark on the gauge plates or could not be detected under the current visualization condition. For the speed, the comparing results demonstrated that the low and high speed impacts have no obvious differences for real needle marks. It is more accurate for frontal impacts. Conclusions In this chapter, it analysed the real case samples and its application boundary conditions. The three-group comparing and statistical experiments demonstrated the 69
第三军医大学博士学位论文 reliability for needle marks to determine the collision speed. It is more accurate in frontal impact than side impact. Since it is lack of data for rear impact, it cannot determine the application scopes. The collision speeds determined by needle marks are all far more accurate than the calculation results from the traditional methods. Hypothesis II should be and indeed has been demonstrated from these real samples. Details can be seen in the next chapter. Chapter 8 The morphology for needle marks and demonstration for Hypothesis II Introduction Since the early 1960s, techniques for the study of surfaces on the molecular level, which have provided the foundation for the rapid evolution of surface science, have become available in ever-increasing numbers. In the interim period, surface science has emerged as the frontier area of molecular physical chemistry on a broad front, ranging from nanoparticle structures to biointerfaces and selective catalysis of stereospecific molecules and reactions, and to chemical energy conversion. [57]Nowadays, many application of the newly acquired knowledge of molecular surface chemistry is used in innovative technologies relying on metal, semiconductor, and polymer surfaces in order to achieve controlled chemical bonding, adhesion, friction, electron and atom transport, solar energy conversion and selective catalysis. Therefore, the challenge of modern physical is to understand macroscopic surface phenomena on the molecular level. For forensic purpose, it mainly focuses on the physical marks on the surface in this study. Materials and Methods Solid surface in contact stick more effectively when at rest than when it is sliding [58]motion parallel to the surface. Therefore, once a system begins sliding cross a surface, the coefficient of friction changes from the static value μto a smaller kinetic (motional) s value μ. The ratios between the magnitude of the kinetic frictional force f and the kk→[59]magnitude of the normal force defines the coefficient of kinetic friction μ: Νk 70
第三军医大学博士学位论文 fkμ≡ (system sliding) (8-1) kNThis is usually written as: f=μN (system sliding) (8-2) kk As with the coefficient of static friction, numerical values for the coefficient of kinetic [60]friction μ depend on the specific materials and are, to a first approximation, independent kof the surface area in contact. When the system is sliding at low speed (the quantitative meaning of a low speed depends on the specific surface in contact), the coefficient of kinetic friction is approximately constant, independent of speed. However, as the speed increases, the kinetic frictional force depends on the speed in complex ways that are typically determined empirically on a case-by-case basis. Solid matter can maintain a certain rigidity and resistance to physical stress. Because of its uneven surface atoms or molecules, its surface phenomena are often very significant. Surface is the objects interface of the vacuum or gas. The solid surface is one or a few atomic layers, sometimes referred to a few microns thick surface layer. The structure of the surface is the termination of the object-phase structure. It is no neighbors on one side of the outside surface atoms, and part of the surface atoms chemical bond extends to the space forming the dangling bond. It is also different for the electronic state of surface atoms within the solid. These differences make the surface with special mechanical, optical, magnetic, electronic and chemical properties. The surface state of the solid is not primarily determined by its surface tension, but by [61]the workpiece process. The workpiece process influence the solid surface tension and surface phenomena, making the nature of the surface atoms different. For example, in a rough protruding region for surface atoms, its energy is higher than the normal arranged atoms', ., it has a higher average surface energy than mean values, and its surface [62]diffusion activation energy is very low so it has higher mobility. In addition, the solid surface tension is not necessarily equal to the surface stress. Solid surface tension can be understood as the reversible work required for per unit area (., specific surface free energy). The so-called surface stress is the functions for the exposing actual split required for the new surface. 71
第三军医大学博士学位论文 The definition of surface stress is, when the surface is perpendicular to the plane of its cutting, in order to maintain the cutting surface on both sides of the surface atoms or molecules in a "balanced" state position, they must be imposed some external force, and the sum per unit for this force is the surface stress. For the engineering and economic reasons, lots of the needles are made from thermosetting plastics, and others are from metal. While nearly all the gauge plates are made from thermosetting plastics. Thermosetting plastics formed into a permanent shape and cured or "set" by a chemical reaction cannot be remelted and reformed into another shape but degrade or decompose upon being heated to too high a temperature. Thus, thermosetting plastics cannot be recycled. When the polymer and the rigid solid slip with each other, there is friction arose between them. Causes of friction are mainly as the following two aspects. First is the solid - solid interface adhesion on the formation of shear, that the interaction between molecules between the two materials in contact with each other where they need to do work when slipping with each other to destroy the molecule binding between them, and this is known as the adhesion mechanism. Second is the contact between the surfaces of two materials, to do work to maintain their mutual sliding for the interface mechanical deformation, and this is called deformation mechanism. [63]Mechanical properties which describe how a material behaves when forces are applied. They depend on its structure, the strength of the bonds, and the type and number of defects present. (1) Strength: A strong material has a high ultimate tensile stress . a high stress is needed to break it. (2) Ductility: A ductile material can be drawn into wires. (3) Malleability: A malleable material can be hammered into different shapes. (4) Stiffness: A stiff material has a high Young's modulus, . a high stress produces little strain. (5) Toughness: A tough material will deform plastically before it breaks. It is not brittle, . cracks do not easily spread. Since surfaces vary, their physical properties are different. The main engineering applied in this chapter is based on the image station established in Chapter 5. Results and Discussion Because of impact energy differences, the collision locations and patterns between the 72
第三军医大学博士学位论文 needle and the gauge plate are of great varieties. In theory, there should be tip marks, middle marks, in single form or multiple forms. The existence of these traces has been found indeed in practice. When the amplitude of the needle and the gauge plate is relatively small, it only can create a harmonic touch, leaving only a single trace on the gauge plate. There are two types of single marks, one is the single tip mark as shown in , and the other is(are) the single middle mark(s) as shown in . [28]. Tip Mark – Single form. The single tip mark is due to the combination movement of the needle tip and the gauge plate by both dynamic pressure and sliding. It is not formed in a statistic way, so it can be easily found and the proper location around the vertical projection on the gauge plate. The contact time is so short that usually it is the real instant speed of the vehicle at the moment of the forming of such trace. According to the energy law and the movement patterns, after this, there is no contact between them. 73
第三军医大学博士学位论文 [28] [64]. Middle Marks – Single form. For the forming of the middle mark(s) pattern, it is only another different manifestation of the same type of principle just like the single tip mark. Why are the two phenotypes different from each other under the same motion and mechanics? This is due to the differences in the structures of different panels. The surface materials, the shaft height, the length of the cantilever (needle length), the energy dissipation during the collision, all these will result in the manifestation of morphological differences, without significant affection for the accuracy. While there is another situation there will be several times to cause multiple marks () on the gauge plate. In this situation, it is a little complex for the examiners to judge which mark(s) is(are) left just at the correct time of collision. 74
第三军医大学博士学位论文 [28]. Middle Marks – Multiple situations. Although multiple marks may be caused theoretically by the amplitude of the needle cantilever and the gauge plane, but in the real scenes, the reasons are more complicated than in the theory. In -100414, the multiple middle marks were caused by the special structure of the needle axis fixture of the speedometer more than the mechanical amplitude. Since there is only one independent impact process, the speed reading can choose the most intensive area between 90km/h and 95km/h. While in -b, the multiple middle marks were caused by two consecutive collision without interval. So it needs to make clear the order of these impacts. Since in the process of deceleration, the impact energy should also be reduced, so, the first impact energy should 75
第三军医大学博士学位论文 be higher than the second impact. As shown in -b, the left marks were impressed prior to the right mark, because the left marks were more complete and deep than the right one, which indicated that it must be caused by the stronger impact which is the first and exact impact. These marks above can be all recorded by reflected light under the wavelength of visible light. For the invisible traces, it needs the ultraviolet technique to visualize the florescent marks as shown in . . Fluorescent marks. The florescent marks are formed during the impact process by the fluorescent paint at the needle bottom. Since not all the needles are coated with fluorescent material the quick judge must be make before the ultraviolet detecting. Therefore, needle marks can be categorized as shown in . 76
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Needle marks category. Needle marks can be classified for different types by different criteria, such as by the position, the times, the pattern and the spectrum and so on. These classifications can help to detect the needle marks under different situations in real cases. Hypothesis II has been demonstrated directly by these middle marks found in real cases. Chapter 9 The identification and discrimination for Needle Marks Introduction Individual characteristics Evidence that can be associated with a common source with an extremely high degree [65]of probability is said to possess individual characteristics. Examples of this are the matching ridge characteristics of needle marks, the comparison of irregular and random wear patterns in needle impressions. In all of these cases, it is not possible to state with mathematical experimental exactness the probability that the specimen are of common origin; it can only be concluded that this probability is so high as to defy mathematical calculations or human comprehension. Further more, the conclusion of common origin must be substantiated by the practical experience of the examiner. 77
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Classical Characteristics Of the disappointments awaiting the investigator unfamiliar with the limitations of forensic science is the frequent inability of the laboratory to relate physical evidence to a common origin with a high degree of certainty. Evidence is said to possess class [66]characteristics when it can be associated only with a group and never with a single source. Here again, probability is a determining factor. One of the present weaknesses of forensic science is the inability of the examiner to assign exact or even approximate probability values to the comparison of most class physical evidence. There are very few statistical data available from which to derive this information, and in a society that is increasingly dependent on mass-produced products, the gathering of such data is becoming an increasingly elusive goal. Disappointment is often expressed when someone unfamiliar with the realities of modern criminalistics learns that most items of physical evidence retrieved at crime scenes cannot be linked definitely to a single person or object. For traffic accidents, it is similar but a little different that, usually and fortunately, it is unnecessary to link the needle and the marks in such a strict identification form because of the pre-checking. But identifications and discriminations can also be down between the needle and the marks, as well as the discriminations between the real and the forgery. As the application of science to law, forensic science offered the knowledge and technology of science to solve the practice problems in real cases. A forensic scientist usually undertakes the examination of physical evidence for identification or comparison. Identification has as its purpose the determination of the physical or chemical identity of a substance with as near absolute certainty as existing analytical techniques will [67]permit. The process of identification first requires the adoption of testing procedures that give characteristic results for specific standard materials. Once these test results have been established, they may be permanently recorded and used repeatedly to prove the identity of suspect materials. Second, identification requires that the number and type of tests needed to identify a substance be sufficient to exclude all other substances. This will eliminate all but one substance from consideration. Hence, if a conclusion is reached that a gauge plate contains needle marks, the examiner's test results must have been comprehensive enough to have excluded all other needles or, for that matter, all other marks from consideration. 78
第三军医大学博士学位论文 In traditional opinion, each type of evidence obviously requires different tests, and each test has a different degree of specificity. Thus, one needle could conceivably be identified by one test, whereas another may require the combination of more tests to arrive at identification. In a science in which the practitioner has little or no control over the quality and quantity of the specimens received, a standard series of tests cannot encompass all possible problems and pitfalls. So, it is left to the forensic scientist to determine at what point the analysis can be concluded and the criteria for positive identification satisfied; for this, the analyzer must rely on knowledge gained through education and experience. Ultimately, the conclusion will have to be substantiated beyond any reasonable doubt in a court of law. But for a rigid science, it should research the technical boundary beyond the experience. So, there are some deep experiments on the identification and the discrimination for needle marks. Materials and Methods The identification sample selection . The identification specimen. A specimen labeled 100726 () has been selected from the ten positive samples to do the identification experiment. In theoretically and technically, the identification could be done by substances detection. However, subjected to conditions and time, the identification experiment was done by simple measurement and morphological comparison. 79
第三军医大学博士学位论文 In the , the purpose of this experiment is to verify whether the marks on the right were geometrically impressed by the needle on the left. The quick measurement by the 2D-3D photogrammetry was taken to obtain the rough but intuitive result. Discrimination True or false The discrimination analysis subjects a suspect specimen and a control specimen to the same tests and examination for the ultimate purpose of determining whether or not they have a common origin. For needle marks, it is more suitable to analyse their mechanical forming origin rather than the needles themselves. So the experiments were designed as follows: 1) The speedometers were selected both from the laboratory samples and from the ten positive samples. 2) The laboratory speedometers were taken as a whole to observe the morphology of the marks, and the real marks and forgery marks should be easily discriminated during the experimental processes. While the original marks on the gauge plates were carefully preserved for the real speedometers, and the forgery tests should only be taken on the odometer gauge plates or the outside region on the speedometer gauge plates. 3) There were three ways to make marks. First is to put on the impact system and make it free-fall. The laboratory marks () had been recorded previously in this way. The second way was by finger pressure to create printed marks in the gauge plate. And the last way was by sliding the needles on the gauge plate surfaces to leave the friction traces on them. . The experimental specimen. 80
第三军医大学博士学位论文 After creating marks, all images were captured under the image station, and imported to the computer image processing to find characteristics for discrimination. Results and Discussion For the identification The roughly experimental identification has been done as shown in . [28]. Experimental Identification. In the left picture, the location of the widest spacing was measured (by 2D-3D technique, Chapter 6, Part II) as . Then the needle was measured at the bottom side to find the same width. After finding this location (marked as L1, ) successfully, the geometry for the marks was recorded and copied to a new layer. The geometry (marked as L2, ) for this layer was moved to just above L1. It was clear that L1 and L2 overlapped perfectly. For the discrimination 81
第三军医大学博士学位论文 . Real marks made in the laboratory. Marks in the yellow circle () were made by the impact system in the laboratory. Their morphological details have been separated by the multi-band light source under the image station. These marks were real in mechanics, although they did not come from the scene. They could help the examiners to recognize their appearances. The marks at the lower right corner in suggested the tip characters and the needle bar characters clearly. In sharp contrast to these marks were those forged against the mechanics as shown in . . Forgery marks (scratches) made in the lab. 82
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Marks in the yellow circles () were all forged by the dynamic pressure of the fingers as intentional and intermittent scratches. In most scenes, such were the most common signs of forgery. Without knowing in advance, it was really difficult to trace them separate from the real. For needle marks, since no one has ever seen the true or forgery before this study, it is necessary to carefully screen on them. . Forgery marks (dot) made in the lab. Marks in the red circles () were all forged by the static pressure of the fingers. In subsequent trials, they would be compared with the real tip marks on morphology. Discrimination These experiments, combined with some previous research findings, showed that there are no standard dot marks for the needle tip in the real world, because the real world is full of movement and complex interference, while the standard dot marks may only exist in the ideal state of statistics. All the conditions of reality can only be a result of dot-like marks to the edge of irregular and fractal characteristics with similar. This conclusion has also been 83
第三军医大学博士学位论文 [68]confirmed by the surface analysis and microscopic analysis. More details can be observed in . . Tip marks discrimination between real and forgery. The characteristics can be learnt from -b ~ e that the real tip mark is a short curve, not a imaginary standard round dot like shown in -a which were forged by finger pressure in the laboratory. The needle tip must be encountered a sudden half-way external force, such as the force from the gauge plate as observed by high-speed camera, so its movement has to change under the changing mechanical environment, that it cannot keep still or remain relatively static pressure. All these causes the final irregular shape for the tip mark in -b ~ e. However, morphological analysis of traces is not a panacea, as there are no perfect experiments and no exactly the same traces in the world. It is also encountered in this study for the impossible task. Or, more precisely, under the current experimental platform, it is difficult to distinguish some fake marks from the real. For example, it is really difficult to 84
第三军医大学博士学位论文 discriminate the tip segment marks () from real to forgery under the current image station. But this does not mean they will no longer be separated by new technology. . The tip segment marks are difficult to discriminate between real and forgery. Through rigorous checking, the segment mark in -a has been confirmed as a real tip segment mark from the scene. It is visible to see that some forgery marks in -b are indeed very similar to the segment mark in -a, which presents new challenges for the examiners. It can be distinguished here because it is known in advance for the sources of them. A simple psychological test has been taken to avoid the suggestion disturbance of the first impression of the mark clew. Before showing the sources of them, fourteen persons took part in the discrimination of the marks in , and ten of them could not give the right answer. For the remaining four, they all admitted that they were so lucky to guess the 85
第三军医大学博士学位论文 correct answer. Unfortunately, these tests showed that the naked eye could not distinguish real. In view of this, before the birth of the new recognition technology, it must ensure the original for speedometer specimens brought back from the traffic accident scenes. The good news is, it is nearly impossible to forge the middle marks unless you dismantle the speedometer. Therefore, such middle marks can be safely identified in practice. It only needs to ensure the reliability of the scene source. . It's impossible to forge the middle marks unless you dismantle the speedometer. The middle marks shown in are all simple but difficult to repeat. For forensic sciences, this type of physical evidence is the best. Chapter 10 Perspectives Discussion In real cases, there are two final positions for the needle during the collision. On is zero, that is the needle back to the default initial state. The other is the blocked that is the dial 86
第三军医大学博士学位论文 pointer stuck in a fixed rate on the value of the location and no longer turning without out forces. The zero needle is a normal situation for speedometers because of the inner mechanics for the shaft of axis. While the blocked needle is a phenomenon of a damaged speedometer, No matter it is zero or blocked, the occurrence is short of statistical conclusions. It is of little affection for the accuracy of needle marks in this study, but it till needs to be discussed for its special meaning. Considered its contact position on vibration, when the needle is blocked, the probability of large amplitude contact and heavy impact is higher at the scale values than other positions. It can take the mean value of the blocked values as the datum to search for the needle marks nearby. For the zero situations, the detection for the original impact position is more complicated. At the moment of collision, it is such a short time for the deceleration from the beginning to end that the intensity of the collision may be temporary failure for the needle shaft and its velocity is very close to the driving velocity just before collision. This determined that, even the shaft failure occurs, the deviation speed cannot be quicker than the vertical impact speed between the needle and the gauge plate. In other words, regardless of whether the function of speedometer is failure at the moment of collision, it will not affect the actual RMS with the underside of the projection position in contact. The position of this projection is likely to leave marks at the location of impact. It can be read of the moment of impact speed at the location of the projection corresponding to the scale. By Newton's third law and experimental verification of the deceleration waveform data analysis, the manufacturing process is even more relevant to the deceleration. In fact, the deceleration process is extremely short according to the above analysis that the deviation angle is very small, no more than 3 degrees in the lab. Therefore, from the practice of speed identification, the scale value indexed by the needle marks can be taken as the approximation of the instant impact velocity. Although it is still really a complicated problem until recently about the paths in a combinational movement, some scientists have engaged in this field and have gotten some [69]interesting results. Let's take the Lissajous' Figures for example. As shown in the 87
第三军医大学博士学位论文 classical Lissajous curves are traced by a point swinging back and forth in two directions at once - Lissajous 3D follows this idea into three dimensions. Many pattern transforming effects included too, some related to things that happen with real world Lissajous patterns, or mathematical transformations of them - pattern drift so they continually change shape, gravity, magnet, inversion (turn inside out), transparency, friction, etc. . The Lissajous' Figures about the moving paths for the combination of the simple direct cross [70]harmonic motions with different frequencies. The Lissajous' Figures are indeed elegant, because it can provide a good idea to forecast the contact morphology of the impression marks, if the movement patterns were the same. While in this research, the core is to analysis the patterns for the needle marks on the gauge plate, which is a little different from the Lissajous' Figures on mechanics not only for the vibration mode but also for the suspension at the impact collision. But the research ideas can still refer to Lissajous, and some special curves can also be illustrated from the lab impact observation and real patterns for needle marks in further theoretical studies. These graphics can help to analysis the causes of the needle marks (traces) and other similar 88
第三军医大学博士学位论文 impressions, as the initial contact position can be determined by the trajectory of the needle under a certain movement pattern. Conclusions This part is about the analysis for real application boundary conditions and the needle marks maps. First, validity studies on 59 random samples collected from real cases have been down and 10 positive results have been obtained. Frontal collision results are significantly more accurate and reliable than traditional algorithms that they can be identified as the real speed values. There are cross sections between side impact results and traditional results, therefore, so it needs to determine the speed value in combination with other information. No needle marks have been found in rear collision or other situations, so it can not draw valid conclusions. In real positive results, the lowest speed is 42 km/h, which can extend the application range from high-speed impact to general traffic areas. Hypothesis II has been effectively solved. Needle marks include tip and middle marks, single and multiple marks, scratches and impressions and visible and fluorescent marks. Each of them has independent morphological properties that experts can detect them effectively. Not all needle marks can be identified, but for some clear middle marks, it can take identification between the needle bar and the impressions through mini size measurements and traces comparisons. Real tip marks are irregular short curves, which are significantly different from the forgeries. Middle marks can not be forged unless the speedometers are disassembled. It is difficult to discriminate tip scratch marks from forgeries. For multiple marks from consecutive impacts, the time order can be determined by the definition of impressions based on the energy theorem. 89
第三军医大学博士学位论文 References 57. John O'M Bockris, Shahed U M Khan. Surface electrochemistry: a molecular level approach. New York: Plenum, 1993: 411. 58. Howe R D, Cutkosky M R. Dynamic tactile sensing: perception of fine surface features with stress rate sensing. IEEE Trans Robot Auto, 1993, 9(2): 140-151. 59. Ronald Lane Reese. University physics I. Beijing: China Machine Press. 2002: 205. 60. Jairo A Martins, Istvan Kovesdy, Jose D Bressan. Experimental kinetic friction coefficient (μk) determination in the interface polycarbonate blade and flat rubber-belt when interacting with ore, lubricant and pressure. Int J Mining Mineral Eng, 2010, 2(2): 159-168. 61. Heisel U, Krondorfer H. Surface method for vibration analysis in peripheral milling of solid wood. In: Proc of the 12th International Wood Machining Seminar. 1995, Kyoto, Japan. 62. Xinrong Teng. Surface physics and chemistry. Beijing: Chemical Industry Press 2009: 68. (In Chinese) (滕新荣.表面物理化学[M].北京:化学工业出版社, 2009: 68.) 63. Stephen Pople. Advanced physics through diagrams. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 2001: 99. 64. Daiqin Tao, Zhiyong Yin. Review on the morphological visualization of physical marks for the traffic accident collision speed evidence analysis. Forensic Sci Sem, 2011, 1(1): 1-13. 65. Michael J Saks, Jonathan J Koehler. The coming paradigm shift in forensic identification science. Science, 2005, 309 (5736): 892-895. 66. Henry C Lee. Forensic science and the law. 25 Conn L Rev. 1993: 1117-1124. 67. Richard Saferstein. Criminallistics: an Introduction to Forensic Science, 6th ed. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998: 69. 68. Gabor A Somorjal, Yimin Li. Introduction to surface chemistry and catalysis, 2nd ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons Inc, 2010: 322. 69. Christine Semmrich, Ryan J Larsen, Andreas R Bausch. Nonlinear mechanics of entangled F-actin solutions. Soft Matter, 2008, 4: 1675-1680. 70. Yousheng Shu. Mechanics (physics). Beijing: Peking University Press, 2005: 234.(In Chinese) (舒幼生.力学(物理类)[M].北京: 北京大学出版社, 2005: 234.) 90
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Summary In this study, it has proposed a new speed identification technique. Its feasibility has been discussed for error analysis and experimental demonstration. By the experimental study and real case analysis of needle marks, it has established a reliable and practical new method for identification of vehicle collision speed. It has corrected the previous misunderstanding about the relationship between impression positions and mechanism. It has provided an association with vibration mode and traces patterns, which enriches the theory of mechanical vibration and traces morphology. It is the first time to draw detailed morphological maps and to do authenticity discriminations on needle marks. What is more, critical technologies, such as the multi- spectrum technology, the vapour-coating technology and the three-dimensional measurement technology, have greatly improved the detection rate of needle marks and accuracy for identifications. Special notes: (1) The formation of the needle marks is related to the deceleration; (2) The speedometer needle is doing the torsional cantilever beam high vibrations during the impact; (3) The gauge plate moves as membrane-like high vibrations; (4) The needle contacts the gauge plate either the tip position or the middle section and leaves marks on it; (5) The collision deceleration, the gauge plate materials and the collision directions determine the forming of the needle marks; (6) There were 10 positive results from the 25 effective samples (13 frontal, 5 side and 7 rear), with discernible tip and/or middle marks on gauge plates; (7) Multiple marks have been distinguished effectively; (8) The low and high speed impacts have no obvious differences for real needle marks; (9) The scale values instructed by the marks can be used as alternatives of the instantaneous speed effectively especially in the frontal impact, ., it is more accurate for frontal impacts. 91
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Although there are such innovative aspects, it is still of some deficiencies. Since similar literatures are less and real car crashes are difficult to operate for verification, for some difficult problems found during the research process, such as the quantity-effects relationship between blocked needles and collision speeds, the reflection relation between gauge plate materials and specific spectra and the association between impact velocities and traces morphological patterns, need to be in-depth studied. The method established in this study is only suitable for the determination of the medium- or high-speed frontal collision speeds, but temporarily not for the side, the rear or the low-speed frontal collision speeds. The needle marks based on the mechanical structure of direct-cross-torsion-vibration cantilever are of evidential effectiveness. It can promote the morphological structure researches on mechanical vibration, such as the side confirmation for the existence and reality of Lissajous' figures. It can also do in-depth study in the field of tribological surface analysis, which is of great values in both theory and probation. 92
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Acknowledgements 致 谢 在本论文完成之际，衷心感谢导师尹志勇教授三年来对我的亲切关怀和悉心指导。您严谨的科学作风、实事求是的科学态度、渊博的知识、谦逊的为人、非凡的科研洞察力和忘我的工作精神，使我终身受益，必将对我今后的工作、学习和做人产生深远的影响。在此，对恩师表示衷心的感谢！ 感谢第三军医大学王正国院士、朱佩芳教授、杨志焕研究员、周继红研究员、陈海斌副研究员、李晓炎高级实验师、宁心高级工程师、杨光瑜博士、董蕻博士、邱俊博士以及其他老师在实验、论文撰写和答辩期间给予的支持和帮助。 感谢我的师兄赵辉博士和刘盛雄博士、师妹王晴硕士、师弟王富平博士、冯成建硕士、李奎硕士和蒋文浩学士在实验和论文撰写上给予的关心和帮助。 整个课题实验中，得到第三军医大学八益交通事故司法鉴定中心车兴平实验员与谢静茹实验员、碰撞试验室黄开理师傅与粱琪师傅以及重庆市公安局、刑警总队与交巡警总队及各支队的大力帮助。一起工作学习的经历让我们结下了深厚的友谊。 感谢德国法医昆虫学家Mark Benecke教授和美国加州大学神经生物与心理物理学家James H Fallon教授在我读博期间给予的文献帮助与学术鼓励。 感谢西南政法大学郭晓彬教授、赵中颉教授与管光承教授、重庆医科大学贾运涛副教授、重庆工商大学黄辉副教授以及重庆大学曾强博士长期以来在学习和工作上给予的关心和帮助。 感谢我的家人在学习和生活上对我一如既往的理解与支持！ 感谢尚未提及的所有关心和帮助我的老师、同学和朋友们！ 93
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Review Review on the Morphological Visualization of Physical Marks [64]for the Traffic Accident Collision Speed Evidence Analysis Abstract Road traffic injuries still remain an important public health problem at global, regional and national levels while the speed is an important determinant of injury. This paper describes retrospection and future trends in physical marks in traffic collision speed analysis. Traffic accident speed estimation methods such as skid marks, deflection, thrown distances, visual techniques, computer simulation and physical marks measurement techniques are briefly mentioned. A special attention has been paid to interface with surface morphological analysis and optical methods. Selected problems of visualization and collection are described. The effects of collision on the speedometers are analyzed alone. Since collision marks for speed analysis are becoming both technologically and theoretically critical, their description is a problem of a great practical importance. And it will provide a new train of thought to study this problem in an integrated way. Keywords: Forensic science; Traffic accident analysis; Speed analysis; Collision marks; Interface; Visualization; 1. Introduction With the social and economic development and the sharp increasing in the number of motor vehicles, traffic accidents have become the world's largest public nuisance. And road traffic injuries still remain an important public health problem at global, regional and [1]national levels. As a major cause of the death and disability, the road traffic crashes are of direct relationship with the speed. Since the speed is an important determinant of the [2]injury, the faster the vehicle is travelling, the greater the energy inflicted on the occupants during a crash, and the greater the injury. [3]For protecting human body, the travelling speed should be limited. For limiting the speed, laws have been made to ensure safety and pinpoint responsibility. While for pinpointing the responsibility, the ability must be improved to determine the speed more and 94
第三军医大学博士学位论文 more accurately in the traffic accident analysis. Each country sets its own speed limits, however, rates are similar. Currently, a lot of useful methods have been accumulated to estimate and determine the speed in the traffic accident analysis. From a physical evidence view, it needs not only to find out effective ways to determine the accident speed, but also to assess the results for expert testimony. For casualty treatment and safety design of vehicles, speed analysis is important, while for forensic science, it refers to more complicated aspects. Collision speed, especially in the serious impacting situation, is of close relationship with the deceleration. And for accident scene detecting, the mechanical properties of the interfaces are important for mechanical analysis, since it is meaningful for physical evidence verification. With new techniques and theories coming forth, it impels to take review on these fields for speed analysis on the physical evidence view, which including the necessary brief retrospection of collision speed analysis especially the physical marks on the scene, and the resent results of original researches on the surface analysis and morphological surface collision marks visualization and collection in the traffic accident field. More problems have been suggested unsolved here, and more impact marks should be studied for the traffic accident injury treatment and the scene reconstruction. 2. Speed analysis [4]No matter you searching for the skid marks on the road, or the deflection of the [5][6][7]vehicles, or taking calculation of the thrown pedestrian or objects, like most police [8]officers still relying upon, real conditions are more or less limited to interfere the old traditional methods to be the optimal approaches in real cases. Therefore, new experimental [9][10-12][13,14][15-18]methods, the image and video approaches and the computer simulations have been suggested. These new approaches have indeed improved the accurateness of [19][20]speed determination, but their uncertainties have been critically analyzed. And more, how can all the roads be covered with video recorders? Or how can such costly equipments be bought by everyone to collect data for simulation? So, it still needs to find more simple ways to solve the problem. Skid marks 95
第三军医大学博士学位论文 A primary technique is the estimation of vehicle speed from the length of skid mark. The technique of calculating speeds of cornering vehicles from the curvature of their tire marks is widely used, although misgivings have been expressed over its accuracy, given the way that cornering ability depends on individual characteristics. Controlled crash tests had [21-23]performed by various workers show that the relationship between impact damage and impact velocity is a remarkably simple function, and more scientists described the techniques for using their data in the more varied conditions of real accidents. [21]Experiments have been performed in a range of motor cars to explore these effects, to establish the accuracy of the technique and to draw up a set of guidelines for accident investigators. The conclusions are that the marks must clearly indicate side slipping and a degree of yaw by the vehicle; that the measurement of radius should be taken directly from the road surface; that only the first part of the mark (usually about 15 meters) need be measured; that the yaw of the vehicle should not be large; and that the speed so found should be reckoned as being that at the start of the marks ± 10%. The characteristics of an individual motor car may affect its ability to achieve a particular lateral acceleration without loss of control, but not the speed indicated by its tire marks. Vehicles decelerate between brake application and skid onset. To better estimate a [22]vehicle’s speed and position at brake application, skid-to-stop tests were performed from four initial speeds (20, 40, 60, and 80 km/h) using three different grades of tire (economy, touring, and performance) on a single vehicle and a single road surface. Average skidding friction was found to vary with initial speed and tire type. The post-brake/pre-skid speed loss, elapsed time, distance travelled, and effective friction were found to vary with initial speed. Based on these data, a method using skid mark length to predict vehicle speed and position at brake application rather than skid onset was shown to improve estimates of initial vehicle speed by up to 10 km/h and estimates of vehicle position at brake application by up to 8m compared to conventional methods that ignore the post-brake/pre-skid interval. While there has also been a line-based skid mark segmentation and measurement system to solve issues related to randomness from pavement texture and measurement subjectivity at car accident scenes. The system was designed to operate along the longer straight lines that exist in boundaries between skid marks and pavement at the scene of an accident. The operational system consists of two processes: preprocessing and feature 96
第三军医大学博士学位论文 extraction. Preprocessing steps include skid mark positioning, slope angle detection, and segmentation, whereas feature extraction involves detecting light striations, striation segmentation, and calculating the widths of striations from images. Some experimental [23]validation and objective measurements have illustrated that this system saves operation time and cost while performing with accuracy similar to that of manual methods. Deflection The structural-deformation inhomogeneity of the surface layer has been assessed by the method of scratching with recording the variations of the tangential force of resistance [24]to the motion of the indenter. For the depths of penetration of the Vickers indenter comparable with the parameters of surface roughness, the function has been used to describe the inhomogeneity of structural-deformation properties of the material along the scanning path without making into account the influence of the surface topography. What's more, the energy absorbed in deforming a vehicle's structure in an accident [25]often account for a significant fraction of its original speed. Some Controlled crash tests performed by various workers have shown that the relationship between impact damage and impact velocity is a remarkably simple function, and the techniques have been described for using their data in the more varied conditions of real accidents. And the process of calibrating a tachograph () makes use of a mechanical head drive unit and an electronic clock tester. Both these devices should be checked against a standard at 6-month intervals. The design of such a substandard, based on a highly stable 1 MHz crystal oscillator, has been researched, too. Thrown distances For reconstruction of pedestrian–vehicle accident being a worldwide problem, numerous previous studies had been carried out on accidents with vehicular skid marks or definite pedestrian throw distances. However, little could be done if marks or throw [26]distances cannot be obtained in accident reconstruction. And a team work first described the physical model of dynamic process of pedestrian head impact on windshield glazing. Some simplifications have been made to obtain a better and more practical model, including discussing the support boundary conditions. Firstly, the work modeled the relations between pedestrian impact speed and deflection of windshield glazing based on the impact dynamics and thin plate theory. Later, the relations of vehicle impact speed and deflection were 97
第三军医大学博士学位论文 discussed. Therefore, a model of vehicle impact speed versus deflection of windshield glazing has been developed. The model was then verified by ten real-world accident cases to demonstrate its accuracy and reliability. This model has provided investigators a new method to reconstruct pedestrian–vehicle accidents. Visualization [27]For visual techniques, some researchers presented their new results regarding the problem of driving an autonomous vehicle by the use of vision, dealing with the three aspects of the system: the vision algorithm, the vehicle's behavior, and the lateral control, making the guidance possible. The main point of these researches is the presentation of experimental results. The researchers have compared results obtained in simulations to those recorded on the vehicle at high speed. [28]Since a time-series study has been designed with a comparison group to assess the effects of the speed cameras, the “intervention group” was the beltway, and the comparison group consisted of arterial roads on which no fixed speed cameras had been installed. The outcome measures were number of road collisions, number of people injured, and number of vehicles involved in collisions. It fitted the data to Poisson regression models that were adjusted according to trends and seasonality. As the results, the relative risk (RR) of a road collision occurring on the beltway after (vs. before) installation of speed cameras was (95% confidence interval [CI] = , ). This protective effect was greater during weekend periods. No differences were observed for arterial roads (RR=; 95% CI=, ). Attributable fraction estimates for the 2 years of the study intervention showed 364 collisions prevented, 507 fewer people injured, and 789 fewer vehicles involved in collisions. Computer simulations In order to analyze safety of traffic accident scenes and avoid secondary accident, influence factors including human factors, vehicle factors, road and environment factors and management factors have been analyzed. Based on the system dynamic, the system [29]causality graph and flowchart of system dynamic have been established. Changing input of every factor, importance degree of factors has been obtained. Evaluation index system of safety in accident scene has been established. Membership degree and dimensionless function have been adapted to deal with quantitative and qualitative index. The three level 98
第三军医大学博士学位论文 BP neutral network model has been developed to evaluate safety level in traffic accident scene. The results have shown that the evaluation index is logical and the conclusion is objective. At last, Preventive measurements have been proposed. And for computer simulations, it has been presented a vehicle-to-vehicle distance and [30]speed control algorithm using an electronic-vacuum booster (EVB). The EVB has been used as a brake actuator. The performance characteristics of the EVB have been investigated via computer simulations and experiments. Mathematical models of the electronic-vacuum booster developed in the study and a two-state dynamic engine model have been used in the simulations. Linear optimal control theory has been used to design optimal acceleration for the vehicle-to-vehicle distance control. A throttle/brake control law has been proposed. The throttle/brake controller forces the vehicle acceleration to converge to the desired acceleration. It has been shown via the simulations and vehicle tests that the control law can provide a vehicle equipped with the electronic-vacuum booster with good distance control performance in both high speed and low speed stop and go driving situations. . Collision marks Since the road scenes are so easily to be influenced by external conditions, that why not to find an approach directly to the core of the problem? Being part of the accident scene, vehicles can provide the information of the travelling and collision. And there indeed some [31,32]experts set foot in. Some experts utilized the score mark or scratches on the tires or bodies of the vehicles to estimate the speed as shown. [32]Figure 1. Scratches on the tyre. 99
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Although they have solved the problem in a numerous and complicated way, it has been suspected whether they could reduce the amount of calculation work in practice. Theories of the physical evidence have suggested finding useful traces or impressions to identify things. It enlightened a new direction to scan the problem of speed identification. As traces left on the road were no longer novelty, traces or marks on the vehicle body or fittings were novel for accident analyzers. In collisions where there is contact between a plasticized polyvinylchloride surface and [33]a vehicle, characteristic marks arising from the plastic are deposited on the vehicle. These appear as (a) a series of ridges and depressions with embedding plastic filaments, or (b) dispersed droplets along with brown mass. The corresponding features noticed on the plastic are (a) melting and marks of stretching, and (b) dark brown discoloration and cracked film structure. These marks are dependent on whether the deformation in the collision is either melting or thermal degradation. The occurrence of the marks from melting has been [34]reported. In a recent case, different marks, namely, dispersed droplets along with brown mass caused by the thermally degrading plastic were observed. The appearance of either of these kinds of marks on the vehicle together with corresponding features on the plastic material constitute physical evidence of contact and can be used as proof of a collision. 3. Interface Physical properties of the solid surface [35]Mechanical properties which describe how a material behaves when forces are applied. They depend on its structure, the strength of the bonds, and the type and number of defects present. (1) Strength: A strong material has a high ultimate tensile stress . a high stress is needed to break it. (2) Ductility: A ductile material can be drawn into wires. (3) Malleability: A malleable material can be hammered into different shapes. (4) Stiffness: A stiff material has a high Young's modulus, . a high stress produces little strain. (5) Toughness: A tough material will deform plastically before it breaks. It is not brittle, . cracks do not easily spread. Since surfaces vary, their physical properties are different. Since the early 1960s, techniques for the study of surfaces on the molecular level, which have provided the foundation for the rapid evolution of surface science, have become available in ever-increasing numbers. In the interim period, surface science has emerged as 100
第三军医大学博士学位论文 the frontier area of molecular physical chemistry on a broad front, ranging from nanoparticle structures to biointerfaces and selective catalysis of stereospecific molecules and reactions, and to chemical energy conversion. [36]Nowadays, many application of the newly acquired knowledge of molecular surface chemistry is used in innovative technologies relying on metal, semiconductor, and polymer surfaces in order to achieve controlled chemical bonding, adhesion, friction, electron and atom transport, solar energy conversion and selective catalysis. Therefore, the challenge of modern physical is to understand macroscopic surface phenomena on the molecular level. For forensic purpose, it mainly focuses on the physical marks on the surface. Surface wear has been conventionally characterized by two-dimensional approaches primarily because historically there was a lack of proper three-dimensional measurement techniques and effective characterization methods. In recent years, many advanced [37]three-dimensional instruments for surface topography measurement have become available. This has had the effect of stimulating the demand for characterization of surface wear through the three-dimensional techniques. Since there is no well-defined approach, [38]some researchers have aimed to initiate an integrated approach based on three-dimensional techniques to the characterization of surface wear. The methods and techniques used in the qualitative characterization have been presented and described in conjunction with discussions of experimental results. Since qualitative characterization does not require relocation techniques during surface measurement and tribological testing, it is simpler and more economical to use. Furthermore not only is the proposed approach effective in surface wear characterization, but also it would be useful as a guideline to assist the functional design of surfaces. Roughness is, among human sensations, just as fundamental as color or pitch, or as heaviness or hotness. But its study had remained in a more primitive state, by far. The reason was that both geometry and science were first drawn to smooth shapes. Thus, color and pitch came to be measured in cycles per seconds, that is, have been reduced to sinusoids, in other words to uniform motions around a circle – the epitome of a smooth shape. A study of roughness had necessarily to wait until specific mathematical tools had been discovered and, much later, suitably interpreted. Fractal geometry began when it reinterpreted the flight from nature that had led mathematicians to conceive of notions like the Holder exponent, 101
第三军医大学博士学位论文 the Cantor set, or the Hausdorff dimension. They boasted of these notions being ‘monstrous’ but in fact it turned them over into everyday tools of science. It also added further tools that – taken together – made roughness quantitatively measurable for the first time. Acquiring a quantitative measure is the step that moves a field into maturity. And this move instantly led to a striking conjecture. The traditional measures of their roughness ranged all over. To the contrary, their fractal roughness varies very little not only between samples but also between materials. It checked the “universality” had been extended but not explained. The new intrinsic measure created a major intellectual mystery. The first major new tool that added to those contributed by the likes of Holder, Cantor, and Hausdorff was multifractality, for both measures and functions. It was motivated by the urge to model the intermittence of turbulence but also noted that the same techniques ought to apply to the intermittence in the variation of financial prices. It found unexpectedly quantitative truth to this adage by showing that both phenomena can be tackled with essentially the same tools. Roughness is everywhere therefore fractal geometry has little fear of running out of problems. It will sketch the fractal geometry of roughness and explore some new developments relevant to this field. While for the fractal theory of roughness stand among the other branches of physics, quantitative measures of mass and size came early and mark the dawn of history. Visual signals led very early on to the vocabulary of bulk and shape, and of brightness and color; auditory signals, to the vocabulary of loudness and pitch, and to scales known to musicians since time immemorial. However, optics and acoustics did not fully arise as sciences until two hundred years ago, when concrete notions represented by ancient words were made quantitative, for example, when color and pitch could be measured by frequencies. Similarly, the first step in the theory of the perennial sensation of “hot” was well-recorded by history. It was the ‘invention’ by Galileo of the notion of bodies of uniform hotness, together with a proper intrinsic quantitative measure of hotness: the temperature. Judged against this background, the sense of smooth vs. rough, which is a priori equally essential, remained in a primitive state. To accomplish this has been an awesome and humbling privilege. Previously, the notion called either roughness or volatility was measured by a mean square deviation from a ‘norm’. For fluctuations in a perfect gas in equilibrium, this 102
第三军医大学博士学位论文 measurement happens to be formally proportional to temperature. But in the context of roughness or volatility, it proved an inappropriate borrowing. Instead, starting almost from scratch, it had to create a new tool-box specifically geared towards the study of forms of roughness that possess certain geometric scaling invariance. For each invariance intrinsically introduces one or more numerical invariants, it has reinterpreted one as the first of many quantitative measurements of roughness. Later, many additional intrinsic measurements were also brought up by fractal and multifractal geometry; it even made a set’s ‘degree of emptiness’ into a concrete and useful notion. More generally, in the long road from raw sensation to science, a key moment has been marked by the successful identification of a proper ‘compromise’ between simplicity and breadth of applicability. Fractal dimension is the first agreed-upon quantity able to measure pure roughness the way temperature measures uniform hotness. This is analogous to the question of applicability of the notion of a system of uniform temperature. A growing and long list of widely diverse examples shows fractal or multifractal forms of roughness/fragmentation to be ubiquitous to an extraordinary degree in nature and culture. Specific applications cannot be discussed here further but the early illustrations of a multifractal measure have provided excellent models of the variations on financial prices and on the internet. A co-existence emerges in physics, between the usual smooth or smoothly varying phenomena, and the fractal ones. This raised a general issue. In responding, It has observed that numerical solutions of very familiar partial differential equations easily yield close [39]approximations to fractals. For example, this happens under new but natural conditions that include movable singularities or boundaries. They occur for the Laplace equation in the case of interacting galaxies under Newton attraction, and for diffusion-limited aggregates. Solving the usual partial differential equations of physics can yield either the familiar and expected smoothness, or fractality. Forms of surface collision An exciter laser (KrF) operating at a wavelength of 248 nm has been used to modify the surface microstructure of 7075-T651 aluminum alloy. The aim was to improve both the corrosion resistance and the pitting corrosion fatigue resistance of the alloy by means of laser surface melting (LSM). The microstructure and the phases of the modified surface 103
第三军医大学博士学位论文 structure have been analyzed, and the corrosion behavior of the untreated and the laser-treated specimens were evaluated by immersion test. The fatigue resistance of the 7075 alloy has been presented in the form of S/N curves. [40]A microscopical examination and the transmission electron microscopy (TEM) study have revealed that LSM caused a reduction both in number and size of constituent particles and a refinement of the grain structure within the laser melted zone. As a result, the corrosion resistance of the aluminum alloy has been improved. There was a significant reduction in the number of corrosion pits and shallow attack occurred. The fatigue test results showed that under dry fatigue conditions, the total fatigue life of the laser treated specimens, in which the crack initiation period is of considerable significance, was lower than that of the untreated specimens. However, after shot peening, the fatigue life of the laser treated specimens was recovered. This was primarily attributed to the elimination of surface defects, but also be in part, due to the introduction of compressive residual stresses in the surface layer of the specimen. The fatigue resistance of the shot peened laser-treated specimens, tested in wt% NaCl solution with 48 hrs prior immersion, was greater than the untreated specimens with an increase of two orders of magnitude in fatigue life. This was primarily due to the elimination of surface defects and the reduction of corrosion pits. The problem of surface instability of a right circular cone with an arbitrary opening made of a hexagonal single crystal (the cone axis coincides with the crystal's axis of isotropy) has been investigated. The surface of the cone is free from normal and tangential stresses, but in the layer near the surface initial constant tensile or compressive stresses act in the hoop direction and in the direction of the cone's generators. Surface instability is analyzed by the use of weak nonstationary disturbances which propagate along the surface of the cone in the form of the two types of surface waves: the nonstationary Rayleigh waves polarized in the sagittal plane, and the nonstationary wave of the whispering gallery type polarized perpendicular to the sagittal plane. The weak nonstationary surface waves are interpreted as the lines of discontinuity (diverging circles) on which partial derivatives of the stress and strain tensor components with respect to coordinates and time have a discontinuity, but the components of these tensors are continuous. Each of the lines of discontinuity propagates with a constant normal velocity along the cone's surface in the direction of its generators and is obtained as a result of the exit onto the cone surface either 104
第三军医大学博士学位论文 of two conic complex wave surfaces of weak discontinuity intersecting along this line (Rayleigh wave) or of one real conic wave surface of weak discontinuity (wave of the [41]whispering gallery type). The analysis has been carried out within the framework of the theory of discontinuities based on the kinematic, geometric and dynamic conditions of compatibility; using them the velocities of the surface wave propagation and their intensities have been found. It has been shown that the surface wave velocities are dependent only on the initial stress acting in the direction of the propagation of a surface disturbance whereas the damping coefficients for the intensities of the surface waves are dependent not only on this stress but also on the initial stress acting in the hoop direction as well. The relationships for two critical magnitudes of the force compressive in the hoop direction have been obtained, and it has been shown that under the hoop compressive forces in excess of one of these magnitudes the intensity of the Rayleigh wave or the surface wave of the whispering gallery type begins to increase without bounds during its propagation, ., the surface of the cone loses stability with respect to either of two types of weak nonstationary disturbances. [42]The atomic force microscope (AFM) was used to monitor changes in surface features of an acrylic melamine coating that was exposed to a variety of conditions. Exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation and high relative humidity caused general roughening of the surface and the formation of pits. Further, the damage of the coating surface was much more substantial for exposure to high relative humidity compared to exposure to dry environments. This difference in degradation rates correlated with measurements of chemical degradation determined using infrared spectra that were acquired along with the AFM images. For a variety of products, presenting different industrial sectors, the quality of the product surface is quite often an important factor. The product surface may go through a sequence of finishing processes in order to improve the surface quality. Thus a very smooth punch surface is usually required for optimum tablet making. In the case of cellular phones high quality plastic covers are obtained using electro-discharge machining for injection mold surfaces. Plastic melt copies the mold surface and if wanted a relatively rough surface matte can be obtained. However, the tool is subject to wear and may cause local surface quality variation in the plastic product during a long duty cycle of the tool. 105
第三军医大学博士学位论文 [43]It is obvious that in some sectors of the industry there is a desire to get as smooth a product surface as possible, whereas in some other sectors a relatively high surface roughness is the measure of the quality of the product. A common factor for all such industrial branches is to get information of the surface roughness of the product, and also on the finishing marks and their orientations. The role of the manufacturing process and, for instance, the condition of the tool has great importance in finding the optimal process in order to gain optimal product surface condition. Optical measurement techniques for ultra smooth surfaces are of great importance especially in the optimization of the surface quality of devices based on semiconductors and other high tech products. Chemical mechanical polishing (CMP) process is commonly regarded as the best method for achieving global planarization in the field of surface finishing with ultra-precision. The development of investigation on material removal mechanisms for different materials used in computer hard disk and ultra-large scale integration fabrication [44]are reviewed. The mechanisms underlying the interaction between the abrasive particles and polished surfaces during CMP are addressed, and some ways to investigate the polishing mechanisms are presented. The surfaces of polybutadiene rubber (BR) and styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) [45]subjected to different degrees of abrasion have been specially studied by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In the case of SBR it has been shown that abrasion begins with marks in the direction of rotation which are followed by fine ribbing and then by the formation of coarse, angular and prominent ridges. Prolonged abrasion produces folding and cavities on the surface. This change in abrasion mechanism has been explained as a result of heat build-up and high crack growth rate in SBR which occur beyond a certain stage. These help in softening the matrix and removing the surface. On the other hand, fractured surfaces of BR show that ridges begin to form at about 250 revolutions and there is no characteristic difference between the abraded surfaces at lower or higher degrees of abrasion. With the application of the photogrammetric analysis of microphotographs obtained with the help of a scanning electron microscope to the evaluation of the sizes of three-dimensional objects on anisotropic surfaces., the surface of a sintered carbide (WC + TiC + Co) subjected to electrochemical grinding and the surface of an abrasive diamond 106
第三军医大学博士学位论文 [46]strip was studied. The analysis of stereo pairs for different inclination angles of the surface makes it possible to reproduce the stereometry of objects formed after treatment for different anodic polarizations and pressure and determine the roles of the electrochemical and mechanical factors. The causes of foxing, a rust-red spotting of engravings, books and archive documents, are not yet completely understood, but they are usually ascribed to mould growth and/or [47]heavy-metal-induced degradation of cellulose and sizing materials. In the present work some experts reported the use of attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectrometry, image analysis and atomic force microscopy as non-destructive tools for the surface analysis of foxing stains in respect of their chemical and physical characteristics. An abelian differential on a surface defines a flat metric and a vector field on the complement of a finite set of points. The vertical flow that can be defined on the surface has two kinds of invariant closed sets (. invariant components) — periodic components and [48]minimal components. Some researchers have given upper bounds on the number of minimal components, on the number of periodic components and on the total number of invariant components in every stratum of abelian differentials. These bounds are tight in every stratum as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2. A genus 3 flat surface with three invariant components in H (2, 1, 1): The boundary of M1 is a [48]slit with identified points. The boundaries of M2 and M3 are slits. Surface acoustic wave (SAW) devices can be turned into identification and sensor elements, so called SAW transponders. Identification elements transmit an individual ID number and sensor elements measure physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, 107
第三军医大学博士学位论文 torque, acceleration, humidity, etc. The SAW devices do not require any power supply and may be accessed wirelessly. The complete sensor system consists of such a SAW transponder and a local radar transceiver (reader unit). An RF burst transmitted by the radar transceiver is received by antenna of the passive SAW transponder. The passive transponder responses with an RF signal, like a radar echo, which can be received by the front-end of the local transceiver. Amplitude, frequency, phase and time of arrival of this RF response signal transmit information about the SAW reflection and propagation mechanisms which in many cases can be directly attributed to the sensor effect for a certain measurement value. Due to the high delay time of the SAW transponder in the order of a few microseconds, usually no intersymbol interferences due to environmental reflections occur when the system operates in harsh indoor/outdoor environments. The functional principles of such [49]wireless SAW transponder systems and the reader systems have been pointed out, including the design requirements for SAW transponders, such as identification tags and radio sensors, several application examples and their state-of-the-art performances. In addition, multi-process textures are very important from functional point of view. [50]Various methods of their description have been compared. Surface texturing as a means for enhancing tribological properties of frictional pairs started to be extremely popular from for about last 10 years. The effects of surface texturing on improving tribological properties of sliding assemblies have been analyzed. For cutting marks, fossil bones from the Lower Pleistocene site of Venta Micena bear cut-marks in a small proportion of specimens, similar to that of bones with cut-marks at [51]East African sites at Olduvai and East Lake Turkana. Cut-marks are distinguishable from other surface marks in terms of metrical characteristics, anatomical location, grouping, and microscopical characteristics, particularly those such as microstriations which may be observed with the scanning electron microscope. . Tachographs Considering the practicability and universality, one thing in vehicle was never worthy to be thought highly but of close connection to speed and never to be concerned by researchers or analyzers. This was the speedometer. We have neglected the speedometer in accident analysis from its born to now. We all knew its function of telling travelling speed 108
第三军医大学博士学位论文 during the driving, but few of us thought of its function of recording the instant speed value trustily at the moment of collision in the evidence way. R. F. Lambourn, who had researched the traffic accident speed analysis for decades. He not only researched the tyre skid marks on the road, but also the tachographs (Figure 3). A tachograph is a device that combines the functions of a clock and a speedometer. Fitted to a motor vehicle, a tachograph records the vehicle's speed and whether it is moving or stationary. The mechanical tachograph writes on a round piece of paper which constantly turns throughout the work day. The marker moves further from the center the faster the vehicle is moving. An entire rotation encompasses 24 hours. Analogue tachographs record the driver’s periods of duty on a waxed paper disc. However, these are vulnerable to tampering, and so are being replaced by digital tachographs which record data on smart cards. Tachographs are also used to improve road safety and ensure fair competition. They are also used in the maritime world. Rules for this are made by the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine. [52]Figure 3. Enlargement of Tachograph recordings can reveal vital evidence. Apart from enforcing regulations, tachographs are often used in Germany to investigate and punish speeding. This practice was approved by the German high regional 109
第三军医大学博士学位论文 court in the 1990s. Also, after an accident, the discs are often examined with a microscope to discover the events that took place at a collision site. But the situation is, the tachographs are not commonly in each country. So the methods can provide us a novel idea of traffic accident analysis in speed estimation but of no practical use in real cases. 4. Visualization and collection For visualization, optical properties are important because they provide a nondestructive means for identifications and are responsible for all the features one immediately observes and admires including color, luster, brilliance, scintillation, and dispersion, as well as special phenomena, plays of colors, labradorescence, and the like. In the last decades, studies focus on the fluorescence techniques such as multi-band light waves, and spectroscopic methodology. For color, the photography is important to collect the data. And morphological analysis provides tools on this problem to do further studies. The visualization usually involves in the latent marks, and there is the chemical etching technique. Viewed under an optical microscope, the microscopy technique relevant to [53]SSTND observations has been described: light and dark field illumination, transmitted and reflected light, contrast enhancement techniques, special devices, etc. Starting from this basis a study of each step is undertaken: conception and description of various etching baths, nature of the etchant according to the detector structure, influence of the etching parameters such as concentration, temperature, time, stirring, and influence of interruptions in the [54][55]process and of the reaction products. Peculiar methods such as TINT, TINCLE, [56][57][58]perforated detectors, multilayer detectors and thin foil techniques have been described in the history. There were others dealing with the so-called decoration techniques, namely, silver [59][60][61]chloride crystals, fluorescent and/or dyed detectors, silver precipitation in glasses. The latter is just mentioned whereas the two former techniques are described in more detail: the working principles are explained from the theoretical point of view, the technological behavior and properties of those detectors are described together with their possible applications. 110
第三军医大学博士学位论文 With the development of researching, the use of “mixed techniques” forms the conclusion of the part on track revealing, until eventually, the use of the transmission and [62]stereo electron microscopes was considered and the specific fields of application of these techniques are reviewed. Two important kinds of surface collision marks have been studied for the decades. One is scratches on the tires which have been discussed formerly, while the other is needle marks by mechanical press which will be discussed later. A collection method is a built-in function or procedure that operates on collections and is called using dot notation. You can use the methods EXISTS, COUNT, LIMIT, FIRST, LAST, PRIOR, NEXT, EXTEND, TRIM, and DELETE to manage collections whose size is unknown or varies. But the practical methods used in the surface marks collection still focused on the optical ways especially by camera. 5. Discussion In mechanical identification methods (1) In theory, search for the mechanical tools to solve speed calculation problem; (2) In the actual identification, when there is no skid marks, new methods should be found to solve the problem; (3) A theory of uncertainty calculation on speed should be developed. In the computer simulation (1) Develop new simulation models based on the original model, to improve their accuracy and computational speed operation; (2) Develop a practical application of modern automotive simulation software. Surface analysis The multidisciplinary and complicity of cause the difficulties of surface collision marks analysis. [63]Within the analysis of many frictional contact problems Coulomb's law with a constant friction coefficient μ is used. This assumption is sufficient for many applications in structural mechanics; however in the special case of rubber friction on rough surfaces the resulting simplification cannot be accepted. The physical interactions between . a tire and a road surface are very complex and still widely unknown. The elastomer undergoes large 111
第三军医大学博士学位论文 deformations during contact, such that the frictional properties result for the main part from internal energy dissipation and not just from the combination of surfaces in contact like . adhesion. As it is apparent from experiments, the friction coefficient depends heavily on various parameters like sliding velocity, surface roughness, normal forces and temperature change. In this contribution a multi-scale approach will be used to make an attempt to understand the sources of elastomeric friction in a more rigorous way. Speedometer marks There are two kinds of speedometer. One is mechanical, and the other is electronic. In this research, it studies only about the former one. [64]For the mechanical speedometer, on the basis of the Locard's Exchange Principle, [65]the needle marks have been found to be a kind of physical evidence in some reports and thought of limited use in speed analysis but without experimental studies on the details. In this study, it brought forward two hypotheses. The first hypothesis is: the tip of the needle may leave marks on the faceplate surface nearby the scale of the speedometer during the collision; while the second hypothesis is: the middle part of the needle may leave marks on the faceplate surface of the speedometer during the collision. Based on the laboratory impact system and mechanical analysis, the first hypothesis and half of the second hypothesis had been proved. As the needle of the speedometer was resting like a cantilever beam above the speed scale, when collision happened, its tip might hit the faceplate surface, and left marks like the finger print. Analyzers could take use of these marks, as shown in Figure 4, to determine the collision speed directly from the scale. More can be studied on this subject of collision marks for speed analysis, since it is useful both for collision accident analysis and impact injury treatment. 112
第三军医大学博士学位论文 Figure 4. The middle characteristic (light source: white, incidence angel of 15°) of needle marks (80 km/h) on the gauge plate of the mechanical speedometer from the real case. 6. Conclusions Speed analysis techniques have been developed into a new period of elaboration. And more can be studied on this subject of collision marks for speed analysis, for it is useful both for collision accident analysis and impact injury treatment. Since the mechanical speedometers have been universal in the traffic system, and the optical and camera techniques have been developed into the microspur, the collision marks on speedometer would be a new direction for the speed analysis. And the electronic speedometers have been gradually spread in the world. This will open a new vista for the researchers on the subject of collision marks. Acknowledgements The paper was assisted by the project (No 30800243 and No 81072504) of National Natural Science Foundation of China, the project (No ) of Natural Science Foundation of Chongqing of China and the Academician Foundation (No ) of Chongqing of China. The authors wish to acknowledge the data supporting of the Chongqing Bayi Traffic Accident Appraisal Center of Judicature. Thanks for the help from Dr. Hui Zhao, Dr. Shengxiong Liu, Dr. Guangyu Yang and Mr. Xingping Che. The authors would also like to acknowledge the constructive comments given by the anonymous reviewers. 113
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第三军医大学博士学位论文 Works & Rewards 学习期间科研概况 () Journal Papers 学术期刊论文 (1) Original Research Paper (SCI收录，IF=) Daiqin Tao, Zhiyong Yin, Hui Zhao, Shengxiong liu. The experimental and case study of needle marks on the speedometer as the physical evidence for the collision speed analysis. Journal of Forensic Sciences, March 2012. Accepted. (2) Original Research Paper (EI收录) Daiqin Tao, Zhiyong Yin, Shengxiong liu, Lijun Wang. Telecontrol engineering of three-dimensional measurements from two-dimensional digital photogrammetry for scene reconstruction. Advanced Materials Research, May-June 2011. In press. (3) Review Articles (OCLC/Ulrich收录) Daiqin Tao, Zhiyong Yin. Review on the Morphological Visualization of Physical Marks for the Traffic Accident Collision Speed Evidence Analysis. Forensic Science Seminar, 2011, 1(1): 1-13. Conference Papers 会议论文 (1) YIN Zhi-yong, ZHAO Hui, YANG Guang-yu, TAO Dai-qin, DONG Hong, WANG Zheng-guo. Elementary research on mechanism and judicial expertise of lung injury in traffic accidents. International Congress on Traffic Accident Investigation, 2009: 162. (2) 陶代琴，尹志勇，赵辉，刘盛雄. 交通事故现场擦划痕迹的矢量分析与应用建模. 第三届全国交通伤与创伤数据库学术交流会, 6月11-13日, 2010: 53,. (3) Daiqin Tao, Zhiyong Yin, Xingping Che, Fuping Wang, Jiancheng Feng. The visualization of the latent tyre marks by a novel method of vapour-coating for the Traffic Accidents Analysis. The 22nd World Congress of International Traffic Medicine Association, May 13-16, 2011: 109. (4) Daiqin Tao, Zhiyong Yin, Hui Zhao, Shengxiong Liu, Xingping Che. On the morphological visualization of the latent needle marks for the traffic accident collision speed analysis. The 22nd World Congress of International Traffic Medicine Association, 120
第三军医大学博士学位论文 May 13-16, 2011: 110. Patent 专利 (1) 赵辉, 尹志勇, 杨光瑜, 陶代琴, 刘盛雄, 王正国. 车辆碰撞速度的光谱检测方法. (G01P3/36) 201010148544. Book Chapters 参与教材章节合撰 (1) Chapter &. Modern Traffic Medicine. Edited by Zhengguo Wang, Jihong Zhou, Zhiyong Yin. Chongqing: Chongqing Publishing. May 2011: 240-241, 256-268. (In Chinese) (现代交通医学. 王正国主编. 重庆: 重庆出版社, 2011年5月: 第240-241页, 第256-268页. ISBN 978-7-229-03912-7.) (2) Chapter X, Book 1. Brain Injury. In edition. ISBN 978-953-307-614-0. Academic Reward 学术奖项 (1) 2010年第三军医大学首届学员课外学术科技作品竞赛三等奖。 Academic Lectures 学术讲座 (1) Bloodstain Pattern Analysis I: A Path Forward. April 2010. (2) 交通事故现场三维重建技术研究. December 2010. (3) 交通事故鉴定中的车速算法研究. March 2011. Academic Projects 参与课题项目 (1) 30670513，减速伤中颅内应力分布与应力波传播特点的实验研究，国家自然科学基金； (2) 30800243，基于力学等效的颅脑损伤判断准则的构建及验证，国家自然科学基金； (3) 81072504，原发性脑干损伤的耐限研究，国家自然科学基金； (4) 2007CB516704，颅脑撞击损伤机制与耐限研究，973计划前期研究专项课题； (5) 06G082，军队交通伤/撞击伤研究，军队十一五攻关课题； (6) ，汽车碰撞试验中肝脾损伤评估方法的研究，重庆市自然基金重点； (7) ，车辆-行人碰撞安全性研究，院士基金课题； (8) ，案（事）件现场勘察关键技术的研究及应用，重庆市科技攻关计划项目； (9) ，颅脑钝性损伤的成伤机制与鉴定技术的研究，公安部重点研究计划。 121
