BCEC | WGEA Gender Equity Series
GENDER EQUITY
INSIGHTS 2018
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S
GENDER PAY GAP
CONTENTS
FOREWORD WGEA 4
FOREWORD BCEC 5
Executive Summary 6
Key Findings 6
Introduction 8
THE BIG PICTURE 9
FULL-TIME WORKERS 13
Full-time Gender Pay Gaps 15
PART-TIME WORKERS 21
Part-time Gender Pay Gaps 23
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS 29
Policies and Actions 31
Actions and Outcomes 38
Which actions matter the most? 46
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY 53
GLOSSARY AND TECHNICAL NOTES 59
REFERENCES 65
APPENDIX 67
1BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE 1 Change in number of employees by employment status, 2014-15 to 2016-17 10
FIGURE 2 Full-time gender pay gap among occupations – total remuneration, 2014-15 to 2016-17 17
FIGURE 3 Full-time gender pay gap among industries – total remuneration, 2015-16 to 2016-17 20
FIGURE 4 Part-time gender pay gap among occupations – total remuneration, 2015-16 and 2017 24
FIGURE 5 Part-time gender pay gap for total remuneration, 2015-16 and 2016-17 27
FIGURE 6 Formal remuneration policy or strategy, pay gap analysis, 2013-14 to 2016-17 31
FIGURE 7 Actions taken as a result of pay gap analysis, 2014-15 to 2016-17 33
FIGURE 8 Actions taken as a result of pay gap analysis by sector, 2014-15 and 2016-17 35
FIGURE 9 Change in managerial gender pay gap - audit and actions 38
FIGURE 10 Change in managerial pay - audit and actions, base and total salary 39
FIGURE 11 Change in Key Management Personnel’s gender pay gap - audit and actions 40
FIGURE 12 Change in top-tier manager’s pay - audit and actions, base and total salary 41
FIGURE 13 Change in Executive managers’ gender pay gap - audit and actions 42
FIGURE 14 Change in Executive manager’s pay - audit and actions, base and total salary 43
FIGURE 15 Change in non-managers’ gender pay gap - audit and actions 44
FIGURE 16 Change in non-manager’s pay - audit and actions, base and total salary 45
FIGURE 17 Relative gender pay gaps and average discretionary pay share by industry: 2016-17 47
FIGURE 18 Gender pay gaps in base salary and total remuneration by combination of pay equity
actions: all full-time workers
49
FIGURE 19 Gender pay gaps in base salary and total remuneration by combination of pay equity
actions: full-time managers
52
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
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2
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE 1 Change in number and percentage of employees by industry, employment status and
gender, 2015-16 to 2016-17
12
TABLE 2 Gender pay gap within occupation levels for full-time workers, base and total,
2014-15 to 2016-17
16
TABLE 3 Full-time gender pay gap among industries – base salary, 2015-16 to 2016-17 18
TABLE 4 Full-time gender pay gap among industries – total remuneration, 2015-16 and 2016-17 19
TABLE 5 Gender pay gap within occupation levels for part-time workers, base and total,
2015-16 and 2016-17
23
TABLE 6 Part-time gender pay gap among industries – base salary, 2015-16 and 2016-17 25
TABLE 7 Part-time gender pay gap among industries – total remuneration, 2015-16 and 2016-17 26
TABLE 8 Employers that undertook a pay gap analysis by sector, 2015-16 and 2016-17 32
TABLE 9 Change in full-time gender pay gaps by combinations of previous years’ audit and actions:
all workers, managers and non-managers
50
3BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
FOREWORD WGEA
As this report goes to press, Agency staff are gearing up to collect the fifth year of data under the Workplace
Gender Equality Act’s reporting framework.
It is a big job, collecting standardised gender equality information covering millions of employees from
thousands of diverse workplaces and industries across the nation. There are months of work involved in
supporting employers to report the correct information, checking and re-checking data, following up to
correct errors and the analysing it for trends and insights.
We are mindful that reporting is a big job for employers too and we are so appreciative of the efforts they
make to provide us with accurate information.
All this effort is paying off. With each year of data that we collect and publish, the immense value of Australia’s
unique gender equality dataset is revealed.
Our partnership with Bankwest Curtin Economic Centre to analyse Agency data for pay equity insights has
already delivered some compelling insights about pay equity, including the relationships between gender
balance around the board table and workforce pay equity.
However this year’s analysis is for me the most exciting, drawing clear links between employer action on
pay equity and lower pay gaps. Most importantly, it demonstrates the need for leadership accountability on
closing pay gaps within organisations.
This report backs up with hard data what I have learned over years of talking to CEOs and senior executives -
that is, that organisational gender pay gaps do not close themselves. They must be quantified, understood,
acted upon, monitored and taken responsibility for at the most senior levels of our workplaces.
I hope this report is a call to action for boards and executive teams. Ask for your organisation’s pay equity
metrics and make it your business to improve them. Then keep doing it.
Thankyou to the BCEC team for another insightful report. I am confident that this valuable data-based
evidence will continue to inform meaningful change well into the future.
Libby Lyons
Director, Workplace Gender Equality Agency
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
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4
FOREWORD BCEC
The BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Insights report series provides some of the most powerful analysis on gender
pay gaps in Australia.
The findings in this third report offer some encouragement that Australian businesses are taking the issue
of gender pay equity seriously, with far more seeking to measure pay differences and review remuneration
policies and processes throughout their organisations.
Our latest report shows that gender pay gaps have narrowed over the last year, more so among the
managerial workforce and particularly in relation to discretionary pay.
Some industries are leading the way in driving down gender pay gaps in their organisations, but others
continue to lag behind.
So what can companies do to shift the dial towards greater gender equity in the workplace?
This third report provides some answers with a series of special investigations that explore the sorts of actions
that companies can take to narrow the gender pay gaps that persist in their organisations.
Encouragingly, more companies than ever have undertaken a pay equity audit to better understand the
nature and extent of gender pay inequality in their workplaces.
But pay equity audits alone are not enough to break the inertia.
Measurement combined with action and accountability is the trifecta that drives the strongest improvements
in pay equity outcomes.
Actions do make a difference in promoting greater gender pay equity, but more so when outcomes are
‘owned’ by organisational leadership.
Australian companies need not only to commit to pay audits to address potential gender bias, but to follow
through with actions around such policies to make a real difference to pay equity outcomes.
I hope the findings in this report will continue to inform policy discussions and implementation to drive
organisational change and narrow the gender pay gap in Australia.
We very much value our partnership with the Workplace Gender Equality Agency to pursue the common goal
of improving gender equality throughout Australia’s workplaces.
Professor Alan Duncan
Director, Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre
Curtin Business School, Curtin University
5BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
FOREWORD
This third report in the BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Insights series extends and strengthens the evidence base
around gender pay gaps and how these have changed over time across Australian workplaces.
The report uses unique data reported to the WGEA, capturing 4 million employees and over 11,000 employers
in the 2016-17 reporting period. It builds on the first and second in the series, with updated calculations of
gender pay gaps across occupations and industries.
Importantly, it highlights the nature and impact of workplace pay equity policies and actions in addressing
these gaps.
Encouragingly, more Australian employers than ever before are taking pay equity seriously.
In the four years of WGEA reporting, employers with a formal remuneration policy or strategy increased by 10
percentage points – from % in 2013-14 to % in 2016-17. Simultaneously, the proportion of employers
undertaking a pay gap analysis increased from % to % in the same period.
Our findings demonstrate a strong and convincing relationship between pay gap audits within an
organisation, and importantly, taking action on audit findings, in reducing gender pay gaps.
We also find that pay equity actions work better in combination than in isolation. An organisational
commitment to correct like-for-like pay gaps are three times as effective in reducing overall gender pay gaps
when the action is combined with a commitment to report pay outcomes to the Executive or company Board.
This report confirms that many Australian organisations are taking positive, discernable and significant steps
towards pay equity. These results should motivate further action and change across other Australian workplaces.
Key findings
More organisations taking pay equity seriously
More Australian employers than ever before are taking pay equity seriously, with increases in organisations
with both policies and actions related to gender pay gaps.
In the four years of WGEA reporting, employers with a formal remuneration policy or strategy increased by 10
percentage points – from % in 2013-14 to % in 2016-17. Simultaneously, the proportion of employers
undertaking a pay gap analysis increased from % to % in the same period.
A re-balancing among top-tier managers’ salaries
There seems to have been a re-balancing in salaries between male and female workers that is the root cause
of large gender pay gaps, especially among top-tier managers. This re-balancing has seen male top-tier
managers’ salaries decrease by almost $4,000 on average and female top-tier managers’ salaries increase by
around $24,000 on average for those organisations that undertook a pay gap audit and took action to remedy
the results. This represents an average reduction in the gender pay gap of around 5 percentage points for
top-tier managers in these organisations.
Large adjustments in discretionary pay, mostly paid at the top level of organisations, demonstrates the value
of analysing pay gaps and taking action as an important step towards narrowing the gender pay gap. This
recalibration of salaries at the top echelons is starting to bring men’s and women’s salaries more into line, and
is driving a greater degree of fairness in company remuneration policy.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
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Reporting gender pay gap audits to leadership critical in driving down gender pay gaps
One of the most common actions among firms that undertook a gender pay gap analysis is to report these
results to the Executive. More than 1 in 4 organisations that undertook a pay gap analysis in 2016-17 reported
their findings to the Executive, and % reported on pay gaps at Board level.
Combining pay equity actions with accountability at leadership level has proved to be a powerful approach
for many companies. Companies that take actions to correct like-for-like gender pay gaps, combined with a
commitment to reporting pay gaps at Executive and Board level, saw a reduction in their organisation-wide
gender pay gap by an average of percentage points in the last year alone.
Pay equity actions are more effective in combination than in isolation
Improved gender pay outcomes are far stronger for companies that combine specific pay equity actions,
reinforcing the effectiveness of those actions with accountability through reporting to company Executives
and Boards.
Actions to correct like-for-like gender pay gaps are three times as effective in reducing overall pay inequities
when combined with reporting to Executives and Boards.
For managers, the power of combined actions is even more apparent. Managerial gender gaps in total
remuneration fell by nearly 13 percentage points between 2015-16 and 2016-17 for companies that combined
actions to correct like-for-like pay gaps with accountability at Executive and Board level. Actions to review
performance pay processes are also far more effective when combined with reporting to Executives and
Boards, with managerial gender pay gaps in total remuneration falling by percentage points between
2015-16 and 2016-17.
Mining and finance leads by example
Mining companies offer relatively high rates of discretionary pay of up to 39% above base salary for managers,
yet retain low gender pay gaps in total remuneration of % in 2016-17. Mining also continues to perform
well in driving down gender pay gaps. Mining firms reduced the overall gender pay gap in base salaries by
percentage points between 2015-16 and 2016-17, and in total remuneration by percentage points, once
compositional differences between Mining and other industry sectors have been accounted for.
Almost two-thirds of organisations in the Finance and Insurance and Mining sectors undertook a pay equity
audit in 2016-17, compared to an industry-wide average of around 38%. This commitment to drive greater
gender pay equity is bearing fruit. Finance and Insurance companies reduced the average gender pay gap in
total salaries between 2015-16 and 2016-17, from % to %.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
7BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
In 2012, the Australian Government legislated the Workplace Gender Equality Act. The primary objective of
this strengthened legislation is to promote and improve gender equality across Australia’s workplaces.
Under the Act, organisations are required to report annually against six gender equality indicators, including
representation of women in leadership positions, equal remuneration between men and women and
policies and actions they are taking in respect of these gender equality indicators. This year will mark the fifth
reporting year in the data collection's history, with the first reports delivered in the 2013-14 financial year.
The Act has resulted in the collection of a unique and extensive data set, which effectively represents an
annual Census of all private businesses that have 100 or more employees. The latest Workplace Gender
Equality Agency (WGEA) data collection covers over 11,000 Australian organisations and captures more than 4
million employees – which equates to approximately 40% of the Australian workforce.
Drawing on this unique dataset, the Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre (BCEC) and WGEA have entered into
an important partnership to enable new insights into gender pay gaps across Australia. This report represents
the third publication in the BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Insights report series.
It builds on important findings presented in the first and second reports, which uncovered a measurable
link between increased gender diversity on governing Boards and in senior leadership positions and lower
pay gaps. Our first report found that if the share of women on Boards increased from zero to 50:50, a
percentage point reduction in the gender pay gap for full-time managers can be observed. The second report
went a step further to reveal that organisations that improved the gender balance of their Executive and
leadership teams over time, saw the biggest decline in their organisation-wide gender pay gap.
Gender Equity Insights 2018: Inside Australia’s Gender Pay Gap extends and strengthens the evidence base
around gender pay gaps and how these have changed over time across Australian workplaces. The report
profiles gender pay gaps across occupations and industry sectors and highlights the nature and impact of
workplace pay equity policies and actions in addressing these gaps.
For the first time, a comprehensive Special Investigation into Policies, Actions and Outcomes is included,
delivering new insights into the connection between policies and actions taken by organisations to address
gender pay gaps and the subsequent outcomes.
These Special Investigations examine the progress that has been made in workplaces across Australia in
implementing policies and actions that seek to address gender pay gaps. We look at how progress compares
across industry sectors and occupations. And importantly, we uncover which actions or combinations of
actions are likely to be more effective in narrowing gender pay gaps. The results provide practical steps that
firms can take to improve gender equality within their own workplaces.
INTRODUCTION
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
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BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
THE BIG
PICTURE
Workforce changes
The WGEA reporting data captures over 4 million employees, representing around 40% of the total Australian
Labour market. Notwithstanding the scope of the WGEA data collection, the sheer volume of employees
included in the reporting framework provides a powerful, current indicator of the overall health or otherwise of
the Australian labour market.
Over the course of 2016 and early 2017 full-time employment deteriorated, particularly among men, and part-
time employment became one of the strongest contributors to labour market growth (ABS 2018). These trends
have also been captured within the WGEA reporting data, which covers the period from the 1 April 2016 to 31st
March 2017.
According to the WGEA reporting data, the number of men employed on a full-time basis, fell by % between
the 2015-16 and 2016-17 reporting years, equivalent to around 25,000 employees. This represents a smaller
decrease compared to the percentage change observed between the 2014-15 and 2015-16 reporting periods.
During this period, the proportion of men employed on a full-time basis fell by %.
FIGURE 1
Change in number of employees by employment status, 2014-15 to 2016-17
Ch
an
ge
in
N
o.
o
f e
m
pl
oy
ee
s
Pe
rc
en
ta
ge
ch
an
ge
in
N
o.
o
f e
m
pl
oy
ee
s (
%
)
Change in No. employed 2014-15 to 2015-16 (LHS) Change in No. employed 2015-16 to 2016-17 (LHS)
% change 2014-15 to 2015-16 (RHS) % change 2015-16 to 2016-17 (RHS)
Full-time Full-time
Part-time Part-timeCasual** Casual**
Men Women
+50,000
+40,000
+30,000
+20,000
+10,000
0
-10,000
-20,000
-30,000
-40,000
-50,000
+10%
+8%
+6%
+4%
+2%
0%
-2%
-4%
-6%
-8%
-10%
Note: **The growth in casual employment is somewhat driven by continued improvement in reporting by labour supply organisations that
more accurately captures temporary and casual employees.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
The number of
men employed on a
full-time basis,
fell by % between
2015-16 and 2016-17,
equivalent to over
25,000 employees.
THE BIG PICTURE
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
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The decline in the number and proportion of men working full-time has been partially off-set by an increase
in casual or part-time work. The number of men working on a part-time basis increased by around 6,700
employees, and casual male employees grew by just over 12,000 workers between 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Proportionately, the increase in part-time workers is smaller compared to the change observed between
2014-15 and 2015-16. However, among casual workers, the change represents an increase of % between
2015-16 and 2016-17, compared to an increase of % between 2014-15 and 2015-16.
The continued pattern of increases in both the number and proportion of casual employees – those who work
on an irregular schedule, with little or no expectations of the continuation of work or guaranteed income – is
evident in the 2016-17 WGEA reporting data.
This pattern is largely driven by continued improvements in reporting by labour supply organisations that are
located within the Administrative and Support Services sector. Underlying changes in the labour market are
also likely to be partially driving these trends, with more workers employed temporarily, having no guarantee
of continued work.
Changes in the number and proportion of workers across employment statuses and industry sectors provide
additional insights into how the labour force captured through the WGEA reporting data has transformed
(Table 1).
Mining has continued to experience a decline in the number of workers employed full-time as the sector re-
calibrates, transitioning from a construction phase towards production (Cassells, Duncan & Kiely 2017). The
number of men working full-time in Mining fell by more than 11,000 workers, representing a % decrease.
Female full-time workers also declined by similar proportions (%) but fewer absolute numbers – 1,588.
Meanwhile, part-time and casual employment in the sector has grown across this period for both men and
women.
Manufacturing has seen similar workforce changes to the Mining sector, with full-time employment among
men and women slumping and part-time and casual work on the rise. The exception is among women
employed on a casual basis in the sector, which saw a reduction of over 1,100 workers – almost a 10% drop.
Men working full-time
in Mining fell by more
than 11,000 workers,
representing a %
decrease.
THE BIG PICTURE
11BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
TABLE 1
Change in number and percentage of employees by industry, employment status and gender, 2015-16 to 2016-17
Industry
Men Women
Full-time Part-time Casual** Full-time Part-time Casual**
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing -117 (%) +17 (+%) -19 (%) +82 (+%) +43 (+%) +204 (+%)
Mining -11,071 (%) +163 (+%) +231 (+%) -1,588 (%) +4 (+%) +31 (+%)
Manufacturing -6,385 (%) +1,004 (+%) +1,240 (+%) -2,069 (%) +388 (+%) -1,105 (%)
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste
Services
-2,054 (%) -62 (%) +1,016 (+%) -681 (%) -183 (%) +127 (+%)
Construction +384 (+%) +827 (+%) +676 (+%) +1,266 (+%) +325 (+%) +333 (+%)
Wholesale Trade +2,277 (+%) -267 (%) +303 (+%) +1,318 (+%) +561 (+%) +644 (+%)
Retail Trade -2,704 (%) -1,769 (%) -1,038 (%) -2,785 (%) -3,652 (%) -3,631 (%)
Accommodation and Food Services +330 (+%) +294 (+%) +4,157 (+%) +198 (+%) +637 (+%) +6,671 (+%)
Transport, Postal and Warehousing -4,083 (%) +995 (+%) -296 (%) -1,151 (%) +874 (+%) +71 (+%)
Information Media and
Telecommunications
-188 (%) +319 (+%) -1,152 (%) -1,176 (%) -117 (%) -666 (%)
Financial and Insurance Services +60 (+%) +275 (+%) -28 (%) -831 (%) -299 (%) -346 (%)
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services -148 (%) -6 (%) +997 (+%) -128 (%) -369 (%) +485 (+%)
Professional, Scientific and Technical
Services
-1,435 (%) -617 (%) -6,990 (%) +1,048 (+%) -1,067 (%) -4,600 (%)
Administrative and Support Services +3,094 (+%) +3,347 (+%) +12,086 (+%) +5,618 (+%) +5,272 (+%) +7,089 (+%)
Public Administration and Safety -3,738 (%) -654 (%) -1,258 (%) -523 (%) -428 (%) -248 (%)
Education and Training -4,299 (%) +140 (+%) +2,203 (+%) -2,572 (%) -820 (%) -409 (%)
Health Care and Social Assistance +2,044 (+%) +2,461 (+%) +2,057 (+%) +4,413 (+%) +15,360 (+%) +6,508 (+%)
Arts and Recreation Services -474 (%) +84 (+%) -3,285 (%) +206 (+%) -69 (%) -3,968 (%)
Other Services +2,899 (+%) +146 (+%) +1,372 (+%) +913 (+%) +400 (+%) +433 (+%)
Total -25,608 (%) +6,697 (+%) +12,272 (+%) +1,558 (+%) +16,860 (+%) +7,623 (+%)
Note: **The growth in casual employment is somewhat driven by continued improvement in reporting by labour supply organisations that
more accurately captures temporary and casual employees.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Administrative and Support Services, which employs around a quarter of a million workers (see Appendix Table
A1) has seen strong growth in both the number and proportion of workers across all employment statuses
and for both genders between 2015-16 and 2016-17. An additional 36,000 workers were captured in the WGEA
reporting data for this sector. This change is largely driven by an improvement in reporting among labour hire
firms.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
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BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
FULL-TIME
WORKERS
Within the WGEA reporting data, the absolute number of full-time workers continued to fall between the
2015-16 and 2016-17 reporting periods. This change was largely driven by the decrease in male full-time
employment and reflects overall patterns in the labour market during this time, as captured by the ABS
Labour Force Survey.
Between the last two reporting periods, the number of men working full-time has fallen by around 25,000
workers, representing a decrease of %. Among women, however, full-time employees within the WGEA
reporting data has increased marginally by around 1,500 workers (+%).
Despite these changes, men still dominate full-time employment, making up close to two thirds of all full-time
employees.
This gender difference in full-time employees is linked to a number of factors. Most significantly, the different
roles men and women play when it comes to work and family. While women are increasingly more likely to be
the main breadwinner in the family, women still take on the biggest share of caring, which significantly limits
their access to full-time work (Cassells, Gong & Duncan 2011).
Not only are women under-represented in full-time work, there are also important differences in the types
of full-time work women and men do. Clerical and administrative workers are significantly more likely to
be women – constituting around 70% of all full-time employees. On the other hand, occupations such as
machinery operators and drivers and technicians and trade works are heavily male-dominated. Men are also
over-represented in full-time management positions, particularly top-tier managers in the Executive suite.
Greater balance of men and women in full-time professional occupations exists, with women making up 43%
of all full-time employees.
FULL-TIME WORKERS
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
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Among full-time workers, the gender pay gap currently stands at % for base salary, representing a marginal
decrease compared to the year before and some percentage points lower than two years earlier. The full-time
gender pay gap for total remuneration has also decreased between 2015-16 and 2016-17, from % to %.
The annual difference in salary for men and women working full-time has narrowed to $16,165 (base) and
$26,469 (total remuneration). These broad measures often hide the considerable variation that exists at a
more granular level. The full-time gender pay gap across different occupations and industries is explored in
the following sections.
Occupations
The gender pay gap typically increases with occupational hierarchy. Higher status occupations in
management will often be accompanied by a wider gender pay gap, whereas non-managerial positions
typically coincide with narrower gender pay gaps.
Among managers, the gender pay gap is the widest for top-tier managers (Key Management Personnel).
Women employed full-time as a top-tier manager can expect to earn almost 25% less than their male
counterparts – an annual difference of just over $88,000 in total remuneration (Table 2 and Figure 2).
Female Executives1 are currently paid on average $39,000 less than male executives annually – this increases
to $73,500 when taking into account additional remuneration such as bonuses and other discretionary pay –
a difference of nearly double that observed at base level.
The lowest base salary gender pay gap for full-time workers is among the community and personal service,
and clerical and administrative occupations; % and % respectively. Both occupation categories are
dominated by women, and are relatively low paying.
Women working as technicians or trade workers receive around $17,000 less than men employed in these
occupations, with this gap increasing to $28,000 when taking into account total remuneration beyond the
base salary. The additional total remuneration men are able to access when working full-time in this field is
likely to be related to greater access to overtime and occupation-specific allowances.
FULL-TIME GENDER PAY GAPS
Men working full-time
earn on average an
additional $26,469
each year than
women that work
full-time.
Women employed
full-time as top-tier
managers can expect
to earn almost 25%
less than men – an
annual difference of
over $88,000 in total
remuneration.
Women employed
full-time as
technicians and
trade-workers can
expect to earn almost
25% less men – an
annual difference of
over $28,000 in total
remuneration.
1 Executive refers to 'Other Executives and General Managers'. See Glossary and Technical Notes for further detail.
FULL-TIME WORKERS
15BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
TABLE 2
Gender pay gap within occupation levels for full-time workers, base and total, 2014-15 to 2016-17
Occupation Class
Base Salary Total Salary Base GPG Total GPG
Women Men Women Men 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Managers
Key Management Personnel $206,967 $259,431 $270,160 $358,437 % % % % % %
Executive $183,731 $222,794 $235,651 $309,194 % % % % % %
Senior Manager $141,457 $169,517 $174,513 $220,537 % % % % % %
Other Manager $95,095 $118,379 $113,572 $147,289 % % % % % %
Non-managers
Professionals $88,243 $106,329 $103,343 $128,173 % % % % % %
Technicians and Trades Workers $64,374 $81,196 $76,943 $105,024 % % % % % %
Community and Personal Service
Workers
$55,150 $59,022 $64,062 $70,423 % % % % % %
Clerical and Administrative Workers $61,514 $65,816 $70,310 $76,783 % % % % % %
Sales Workers $55,156 $66,896 $68,221 $89,607 % % % % % %
Machinery Operators and Drivers $62,933 $70,950 $80,849 $95,033 % % % % % %
Labourers $47,047 $57,772 $55,454 $70,314 % % % % % %
All
Managers $115,222 $149,094 $140,815 $193,027 % % % % % %
Non-managers $70,218 $82,052 $82,514 $102,761 % % % % % %
All occupation classes $77,462 $93,627 $91,903 $118,372 % % % % % %
Note: “Executive” is used in this report as shorthand for the grouping `Other Executives and General Managers'. They hold primary
responsibility for the equivalent of a department or business unit. In a large organisation they might not participate in organisation-wide
decisions with the CEO. Managers comprise of all occupations from Other Manager to Key Management Personnel. See Glossary and
Technical Notes for further information about the occupation classifications.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2014-15, 2015-16 and 2016-17.
The gender pay gap has narrowed across every managerial occupation in the three years to 2016-17. The
biggest improvement has been among top-tier managers (Key Management Personnel), where the gap fell
by percentage points between 2014-15 and 2016-17 (Figure 2). Professional employees have also seen a
narrowing in the gender pay gap in the last three years, from to %.
Among the non-managerial occupations there are mixed patterns. The full-time total remuneration gender
pay gap among technicians and trade workers has risen overall between 2014-15 and 2016-17, from
to %. However, in the most recent period it has narrowed slightly. Clerical and administrative workers
have seen little change in the full-time gender pay gap over the last three years, with the full-time total
remuneration gap currently at %. Sales workers have seen a slight increase in the full-time gender pay gap,
from to % in the three years to 2016-17. The full-time gender pay gap among machinery operators
and drivers widened between 2014-15 and 2015-16, but has since narrowed and currently stands at %.
Like clerical and administrative workers, the full-time gender pay gap for community and personal service
workers is relatively narrow (%). The total remuneration gap among these workers has decreased between
2015-16 and 2016-17 by percentage points. The gender pay gap among the male dominated labourers
occupation has increased between 2015-16 and 2016-17 and stands at % when taking into account total
remuneration.
The gender pay gap
has narrowed across
every managerial
occupation in the
three years to
2016-17.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
16
FIGURE 2
Full-time gender pay gap among occupations – total remuneration, 2014-15 to 2016-17
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Pe
rc
en
ta
ge
(%
)
2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Managers Non-managers All
Ke
y
M
an
ag
em
en
t P
er
so
nn
el
Ex
ec
ut
iv
e
Se
ni
or
M
an
ag
er
O
th
er
M
an
ag
er
M
an
ag
er
s
N
on
-m
an
ag
er
s
Al
l o
cc
up
at
io
n
cl
as
se
s
Pr
of
es
si
on
al
s
Te
ch
ni
ci
an
s a
nd
T
ra
de
s
W
or
ke
rs
Co
m
m
un
ity
a
nd
P
er
so
na
l
Se
rv
ic
e
W
or
ke
rs
Cl
er
ic
al
a
nd
A
dm
in
is
tra
tiv
e
W
or
ke
rs
Sa
le
s W
or
ke
rs
M
ac
hi
ne
ry
O
pe
ra
to
rs
a
nd
Dr
iv
er
s
La
bo
ur
er
s
Note: See Glossary and Technical Notes for further information about the occupation classifications.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2014-15, 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Industries
Among the 19 major industry classifications, half have seen their gender pay gap measured on base salary
narrow between 2015-16 and 2016-17, and the other half widen (Table 3). Most movements have been
relatively subtle, however some industries have seen bigger shifts between the two years.
The Financial and Insurance Services sector has retained first position for the highest gender pay gap when
measured on both base and total salary basis, despite the pay gap falling by around percentage points
between 2015-16 and 2016-17 (Table 3 and Table 4).
The pay gap declined on both base and total salary measures, yet women employed full-time in Finance and
Insurance Services can expect to earn around $50,000 less than their male counterparts when taking into
account additional pay beyond the base salary.
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing has moved from seventh to second place in its full-time base salary gender
pay gap and to 4th place for total salary, also from seventh position.
The Financial and
Insurance Services
sector has continued
to retain first position
for the highest gender
pay gap despite an
improvement between
2015-16 and 2016-17.
FULL-TIME WORKERS
17BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
TABLE 3
Full-time gender pay gap among industries – base salary, 2015-16 to 2016-17
Industry
2015-16 2016-17 GPG GPG rank
Ch
an
ge
Women Men Women Men 2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17
Financial and Insurance Services 84,593 5 114,204 2 87,882 5 116,141 2 % % 1 1 0
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 62,034 16 76,461 14 61,740 16 78,719 14 % % 7 2 5
Construction 78,709 8 101,704 5 79,598 8 101,447 7 % % 2 3 -1
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 85,088 4 109,024 3 88,118 4 112,194 3 % % 3 4 -1
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services 78,960 7 100,412 6 81,373 7 102,863 6 % % 4 5 -1
Arts and Recreation Services 66,839 15 83,787 9 69,583 14 86,738 10 % % 5 6 -1
Information Media and Telecommunications 80,938 6 100,321 7 83,832 6 104,175 5 % % 6 7 -1
Transport, Postal and Warehousing 67,863 14 82,580 10 71,552 12 87,788 9 % % 8 8 0
Health Care and Social Assistance 69,639 12 80,642 11 72,071 10 84,336 11 % % 9 9 0
Administrative and Support Services 60,863 17 69,131 17 59,144 17 68,862 17 % % 12 10 2
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services 88,382 3 102,079 4 91,405 3 104,699 4 % % 10 11 -1
Other Services 68,472 13 75,506 15 69,050 15 78,905 13 % % 17 12 5
Retail Trade 56,332 19 63,846 19 58,774 18 66,374 18 % % 13 13 0
Mining 104,246 1 119,427 1 106,853 1 120,439 1 % % 11 14 -3
Accommodation and Food Services 59,830 18 66,744 18 56,999 19 64,023 19 % % 15 15 0
Manufacturing 71,534 10 80,345 12 73,855 9 82,415 12 % % 14 16 -2
Education and Training 88,853 2 95,902 8 92,242 2 100,977 8 % % 18 17 1
Public Administration and Safety 71,633 9 79,202 13 70,619 13 76,160 16 % % 16 18 -2
Wholesale Trade 70,089 11 74,840 16 71,991 11 76,836 15 % % 19 19 0
All Industries 75,276 91,472 77,462 93,627 % %
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
While Mining remains the highest paying industry for both men and women, it has descended three places
from 11th to 14th on both base and total salary measures. The base salary gender pay gap among full-time
workers decreased from to % and total salary gender pay gap from to % between 2015-16
and 2016-17. Men working in this industry can expect to earn on average almost $165,000 each year in total
pay, whereas women’s average annual earning are around $139,000 (Table 4).
Within the Rental, Hiring and Real Estate sector the gender pay gap has narrowed marginally when measured
on base salary, however when taking into account total pay the gap has widened over time from to
%. Women working in this sector can expect to earn on average $98,000 each year, whereas their male
counterparts will access average total salaries of $143,000 - some $45,000 extra each year.
Men and women
working in the Mining
sector continue to
have the highest
average salaries.
Women working
full-time in the
Rental, Hiring and
Real Estate sector
earn % less than
men – an average
difference of $45,000
each year.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
18
TABLE 4
Full-time gender pay gap among industries – total remuneration, 2015-16 and 2016-17
Industry
2015-16 2016-17 GPG GPG rank
Ch
an
ge
Women Men Women Men 2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17
Financial and Insurance Services 105,438 3 157,794 2 108,723 3 159,323 2 % % 1 1 0
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services 92,735 7 131,220 5 97,834 7 142,666 3 % % 2 2 0
Construction 91,811 8 127,592 6 92,792 8 127,848 7 % % 3 3 0
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 70,808 16 90,536 16 71,484 16 96,186 14 % % 7 4 3
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 98,154 5 135,399 3 100,975 6 135,279 5 % % 4 5 -1
Information Media and Telecommunications 97,054 6 126,885 7 102,506 5 132,595 6 % % 5 6 -1
Transport, Postal and Warehousing 82,468 11 105,582 9 87,833 11 112,401 9 % % 6 7 -1
Arts and Recreation Services 74,824 15 94,757 12 78,224 15 98,392 12 % % 8 8 0
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services 106,100 2 132,674 4 109,934 2 135,323 4 % % 9 9 0
Retail Trade 65,865 19 78,589 18 69,087 18 82,570 18 % % 10 10 0
Administrative and Support Services 70,183 17 82,414 17 70,554 17 83,990 17 % % 12 11 1
Other Services 78,869 14 92,507 14 79,848 14 94,691 15 % % 13 12 1
Health Care and Social Assistance 80,026 13 93,830 13 83,099 12 98,535 11 % % 14 13 1
Mining 139,053 1 165,148 1 140,905 1 165,133 1 % % 11 14 -3
Manufacturing 85,629 9 99,752 10 88,247 10 102,436 10 % % 15 15 0
Accommodation and Food Services 69,496 18 78,464 19 65,921 19 74,851 19 % % 16 16 0
Education and Training 102,383 4 112,936 8 106,252 4 118,820 8 % % 19 17 2
Wholesale Trade 85,508 10 94,980 11 88,251 9 97,890 13 % % 18 18 0
Public Administration and Safety 81,943 12 91,568 15 82,371 13 90,704 16 % % 17 19 -2
All Industries 89,226 116,009 91,903 118,372 % %
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
The gender pay gap on a total salary measure has declined the most in the Professional, Scientific and
Technical Services sector (Figure 3). This sector has seen the full-time pay gap fall by over two percentage
points from to %. At the same time, the gender pay gap has widened for almost half of the 19
industries when measured on total salary. The biggest widening in the pay gap is among workers in the
Agriculture sector (+%) followed by Real Estate (+%). Very little change in the gender pay gap can be
seen in the Retail Trade and Accommodation and Food Services sector over time.
FULL-TIME WORKERS
19BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
FIGURE 3
Full-time gender pay gap among industries – total remuneration, 2015-16 to 2016-17
All Industries
Public Administration and Safety
Wholesale Trade
Education and Training
Accommodation and Food Services
Manufacturing
Mining
Health Care and Social Assistance
Other Services
Administrative and Support Services
Retail Trade
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services
Arts and Recreation Services
Transport, Postal and Warehousing
Information Media and Telecommunications
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing
Construction
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services
Financial and Insurance Services
0%
2015-16 2016-17
10%5% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40%
Gender pay gap (total salary)
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
20
PART-TIME
WORKERS
BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Part-time work has become a more common form of employment in Australia, driven by both demand
and supply-side factors. On the supply-side, more workers are preferring part-time work to combine other
activities and responsibilities that they may have such as studying and raising a family. And workers are also
using part-time work as a retirement transition pathway. On the demand-side, the changing composition of
our labour market is driving an increase in part-time work, with employers using part-time workers to gain
greater flexibility and productivity in their organisation and to balance economic downturns.
Women are more likely to work part-time than men, however part-time work is also becoming more common
for the male workforce. Within the WGEA reporting data, part-time employment for both men and women
has continued to increase between 2015-16 and 2016-17. An additional 23,000 part-time workers were
captured in 2016-17 compared to 2015-16. The majority of these workers (17,000) were women. However, in
terms of growth in part-time employment, men have experienced higher rates between 2015-16 and 2016-17,
increasing by %, compared to % among the female part-time workforce.
Occupational segregation is also evident within the part-time workforce, but not to the extent that is seen
among full-time workers. Women make-up over 70% of the part-time workforce in all occupations, with the
exception of machinery operators and drivers. More than three-quarters of this workforce are men. Very few
top-tier managers work part-time overall – around 900 Key Management Personnel and 1,800 Executives. The
vast majority of these workers are women.
PART-TIME WORKERS
An additional 23,000
part-time workers
were captured in
2016-17 compared to
2015-16.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
22
Part-time pay data collected by WGEA is based upon a full-time equivalent (FTE) annualised value that is
estimated by each reporting organisation. FTE allows organisations to standardise remuneration by showing
what the equivalent remuneration would be of a part-time employee, if they were working full-time. This
makes remuneration between genders across all states of employment comparable. The analysis that follows
is therefore based on FTE equivalent data.
The average part-time gender pay gap when assessed at a base salary level is %, with the negative sign
indicating a gap that is in favour of women. That is, women working part-time currently earn % on average
more than their male counterparts. This represents an improvement in the part-time gender pay gap in favour of
women from % in the previous period and amounts to an annual FTE salary difference of around $4,000.
When total remuneration is assessed, the gender pay gap narrows to % in favour of women, with
additional wages beyond that of the base salary working towards this movement. These broad averages can
mask sharp variations across industries and occupations.
Occupations
While the gender pay gap for part-time workers overall is in favour of women (around %), this pattern
reverses among part-time workers in managerial positions (Table 5). Noting that few women and even fewer
men work part-time in management positions, across all part-time managerial occupations, men receive on
average 26% more in annual FTE wages each year than women. This has increased from % in the previous
period. When taking into account total remuneration, the gap widens to %, representing a slight increase
from % in 2015-16.
TABLE 5
Gender pay gap within occupation levels for part-time workers, base and total, 2015-16 and 2016-17
Occupation Class
Base Salary Total Salary Base GPG Total GPG
Women Men Women Men 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Managers
Key Management Personnel* $186,568 $247,486 $227,235 $295,703 % % % % % %
Executive $172,496 $246,304 $204,945 $317,638 % % % % % %
Senior Manager $146,482 $186,787 $175,797 $226,356 % % % % % %
Other Manager $104,124 $121,167 $123,533 $145,112 % % % % % %
Non-managers
Professionals $86,280 $106,998 $100,856 $125,383 % % % % % %
Technicians and Trades Workers $55,245 $57,906 $65,391 $70,655 % % % % % %
Community and Personal Service
Workers
$48,504 $48,324 $55,358 $55,596 % % % % % %
Clerical and Administrative
Workers
$57,744 $54,032 $65,718 $61,894 % % % % % %
Sales Workers $43,450 $42,472 $51,175 $50,376 % % % % % %
Machinery Operators and Drivers $55,187 $56,884 $64,851 $70,121 % % % % % %
Labourers $40,154 $39,617 $45,838 $45,863 % % % % % %
All
Managers $119,165 $161,042 $141,962 $196,069 % % % % % %
Non-managers $56,203 $52,022 $65,094 $61,124 % % % % % %
All occupation classes $58,221 $54,250 $67,548 $63,845 % % % % % %
Note: Salaries are provided on a full-time equivalent (FTE) basis. See technical notes and glossary for further information.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2016 and 2017.
PART-TIME GENDER PAY GAPS
Women working part-
time in management
positions will earn
27% less than men
working in part-time
management roles
PART-TIME WORKERS
23BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Executives continue to record the highest part-time gender pay gap in favour of men, with men receiving some
% more on average in annual FTE pay each year than women. This increases to % when taking into
account total remuneration. The size of the part-time gender pay gap among Executives has increased by
percentage points between 2015-16 and 2016-17, when measured on total remuneration (Table 5 and Figure 5).
The gender pay gap has narrowed considerably among top-tier managers/KMP. When assessing base salary,
the gap has fallen from to % and on total salaries from to %. Senior managers have seen a
widening (in favour of men) over the same period, whereas other managers have seen little change between
the two periods.
Clerical and administrative workers have the largest part-time gender pay gap in favour of women, % at a base
FTE salary level, and % when comparing total remuneration. Both measures have increased over time.
Part-time sales workers, community and personal service workers continue to record very narrow pay gaps,
with little change between 2015-16 and 2016-17 when measured on both base and total salary.
In 2015-16, women working part-time as labourers were earning around % more than their male counterparts
on base salary and % on total remuneration. By 2016-17 this had reduced considerably, with the gender pay
gap on base salary narrowing to % (in favour of women) and % (in favour of men) for total salary.
The pay gap among part-time professionals has continued to favour men over women – in line with patterns
we observe at a managerial level. Part-time men will earn some % more than their female peers, with the
part-time professional pay gap widening over time.
FIGURE 4
Part-time gender pay gap among occupations – total remuneration, 2015-16 and 2016-17
Pe
rc
en
ta
ge
(%
)
2015-16 2016-17
Managers Non-managers All
Ke
y
M
an
ag
em
en
t P
er
so
nn
el
Ex
ec
ut
iv
e
Se
ni
or
M
an
ag
er
O
th
er
M
an
ag
er
M
an
ag
er
s
N
on
-m
an
ag
er
s
Al
l o
cc
up
at
io
n
cl
as
se
s
Pr
of
es
si
on
al
s
Te
ch
ni
ci
an
s a
nd
T
ra
de
s
W
or
ke
rs
Co
m
m
un
ity
a
nd
P
er
so
na
l
Se
rv
ic
e
W
or
ke
rs
Cl
er
ic
al
a
nd
A
dm
in
is
tra
tiv
e
W
or
ke
rs
Sa
le
s W
or
ke
rs
M
ac
hi
ne
ry
O
pe
ra
to
rs
a
nd
Dr
iv
er
s
La
bo
ur
er
s
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
-10
Note: Salaries are provided on a full-time equivalent (FTE) basis. See technical notes and glossary for further information.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Part-time men
working as
professionals will
earn some %
more than their
female peers, with
the pay gap widening
over time.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
24
Industries
The part-time gender pay gap varies considerably across industries from (in favour of women) to %
(in favour of men) on base salary measures, and to % when total remuneration is taken into account
(Table 6 and Table 7).
The part-time base salary gender pay gap favours women in 10 out of the 19 industries. This is in contrast to
the full-time workforce, where the gender pay gap favours men across all industries.
Considerable changes in the part-time gender pay gap and rankings of industries are seen between 2015-16
and 2016-17. The Construction sector has seen a shift in the part-time pay gap from being in favour of men in
2015-16 (+%) to being in favour of women in 2016-17 (%).
The Information Media and Telecommunications industry has continued to extend its gender pay gap in
favour of women, with women working part-time in this sector earning around $12,000 more than their male
counterparts.
TABLE 6
Part-time gender pay gap among industries – base salary, 2015-16 and 2016-17
Industry
2015-16 2016-17 GPG GPG rank**
Ch
an
ge
Women Men Women Men 2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17
Information Media and Telecommunications 65,628 9 54,052 12 65,485 9 53,050 13 % % 1 1 0
Public Administration and Safety 51,736 15 48,473 15 57,294 15 48,511 16 % % 11 2 9
Wholesale Trade 56,075 13 49,167 14 58,200 13 51,683 14 % % 4 3 1
Education and Training 74,359 4 85,119 4 77,243 5 88,044 3 % % 5 4 1
Manufacturing 69,941 7 64,544 8 72,413 7 65,024 7 % % 8 5 3
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 87,558 2 93,467 2 93,783 2 105,169 2 % % 12 6 6
Construction 70,614 6 86,758 3 70,739 8 63,917 9 % % 2 7 -5
Mining 114,360 1 126,304 1 116,365 1 127,633 1 % % 7 8 -1
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services 69,302 8 64,629 7 77,869 4 71,912 6 % % 10 9 1
Financial and Insurance Services 70,646 5 76,752 6 72,615 6 77,828 5 % % 9 10 -1
Accommodation and Food Services 39,431 19 38,822 19 38,461 19 36,619 19 % % 15 11 4
Other Services 59,128 10 51,479 13 60,971 11 58,060 12 % % 3 12 -9
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 56,592 12 54,573 11 61,766 10 64,320 8 % % 14 13 1
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services 85,598 3 77,053 5 91,242 3 87,853 4 % % 6 14 -8
Health Care and Social Assistance 54,983 14 55,222 10 57,492 14 58,284 11 % % 19 15 4
Retail Trade 43,069 18 43,314 18 44,504 18 44,993 18 % % 18 16 2
Arts and Recreation Services 47,596 16 47,947 16 49,857 16 50,145 15 % % 17 17 0
Administrative and Support Services 45,635 17 43,811 17 47,621 17 47,767 17 % % 13 18 -5
Transport, Postal and Warehousing 57,465 11 56,666 9 60,038 12 59,957 10 % % 16 19 -3
All Industries 56,154 52,098 58,221 54,250 % %
Note: **Rankings denote distance from parity (zero) in either direction, as determined by the absolute value of the gender pay gap in each
period. Salaries are provided on a full-time equivalent (FTE) basis. See technical notes and glossary for further information.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Women working part-
time in Information
Media and
Telecommunications
Industry earn
around $12,000
more than their male
counterparts.
PART-TIME WORKERS
25BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
The Professional, Scientific and Technical services sector has seen a widening of the gender pay gap in
favour of men over the last two years, from to % on base salary measures. This shift is also apparent
when assessed using total remuneration (Table 7). Conversely, the Public Administration and Safety sector
has seen the part-time gender pay gap widen in favour of women, with this sector moving from 11th to 2nd
place in terms of the magnitude of the gender pay gap on base salary metrics, and 11th to 3rd when taking
into account total remuneration2. Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing has also seen a widening in the part-time
gender pay gap (in favour of men) – from to % on base salary measures and to % in the two
years to 2016-17.
TABLE 7
Part-time gender pay gap among industries – total remuneration, 2015-16 and 2016-17
Industry
2015-16 2016-17 GPG GPG rank**
Ch
an
ge
Women Men Women Men 2015-16 2016-17 2015-16 2016-17
Information Media and Telecommunications 77,080 9 65,070 11 77,942 9 63,719 13 % % 2 1 1
Mining 144,728 1 173,792 1 146,098 1 181,953 1 % % 3 2 1
Public Administration and Safety 57,680 15 54,573 15 66,209 15 56,953 15 % % 11 3 8
Education and Training 83,670 5 98,443 3 87,297 5 102,759 4 % % 4 4 0
Financial and Insurance Services 85,314 4 97,461 5 86,541 6 97,764 5 % % 6 5 1
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 98,506 3 105,693 2 105,161 3 118,617 2 % % 9 6 3
Manufacturing 82,162 6 76,284 8 85,402 7 76,885 8 % % 7 7 0
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 63,770 14 65,967 10 70,057 11 78,052 7 % % 14 8 6
Construction 79,501 8 98,201 4 79,519 8 72,186 10 % % 1 9 -8
Wholesale Trade 67,229 11 59,281 14 69,228 12 62,977 14 % % 5 10 -5
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services 79,851 7 77,172 7 91,493 4 86,221 6 % % 13 11 2
Accommodation and Food Services 44,152 19 43,117 19 43,074 19 40,672 19 % % 15 12 3
Administrative and Support Services 51,592 17 49,274 18 54,821 17 53,219 18 % % 12 13 -1
Retail Trade 50,925 18 51,816 17 52,464 18 53,953 17 % % 16 14 2
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services 100,754 2 94,864 6 107,984 2 105,873 3 % % 10 15 -5
Other Services 66,644 12 62,328 13 69,190 13 67,842 12 % % 8 16 -8
Health Care and Social Assistance 64,440 13 65,036 12 66,659 14 68,011 11 % % 17 17 0
Transport, Postal and Warehousing 69,739 10 69,662 9 73,227 10 74,486 9 % % 19 18 1
Arts and Recreation Services 52,823 16 53,132 16 55,796 16 55,628 16 % % 18 19 -1
All Industries 65,430 61,338 67,548 63,845 % %
Note: **Rankings denote distance from parity (zero) in either direction, as determined by the absolute value of the gender pay gap in each
period. Salaries are provided on a full-time equivalent (FTE) basis. See technical notes and glossary for further information.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
2 This sector has relatively few reporting organisations and captures only a small proportion of the Public Administration and
Safety workforce, as the public sector is outside the scope of the WGEA reporting data.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
26
FIGURE 5
Part-time gender pay gap for total remuneration, 2015-16 and 2016-17
All Industries
Other Services
Arts and Recreation Services
Health Care and Social Assistance
Education and Training
Public Administration and Safety
Administrative and Support Services
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services
Financial and Insurance Services
Information Media and Telecommunications
Transport, Postal and Warehousing
Accommodation and Food Services
Retail Trade
Wholesale Trade
Construction
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services
Manufacturing
Mining
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing
2015-16 2016-17
-20% -5%-25% -10%-15% 0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
Note: Salaries are provided on a full-time equivalent (FTE) basis. See technical notes and glossary for further information.
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
PART-TIME WORKERS
27BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
28
SPECIAL
INVESTIGATIONS
BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Organisational change will generally require the design and implementation of specific gender equity policies.
But which specific policies and actions deliver the best outcomes and is there a link between actions on pay
equity and outcomes?
In a series of three related special investigations we present new insights into the relationship between
organisational policies, the actions taken by organisations to narrow the gender pay gap, and the associated
change in the gender pay gap.
First, we assess the progress that has been made when it comes to policies and actions that seek to address
gender pay gaps. We find out which industries are more likely to be taking action on pay equity, what type of
actions they are taking, and how this has changed over time.
Next, we look at the relationship between organisations that have taken action on pay equity and the
subsequent change we observe in the gender pay gap. We compare changes in the gender pay gap between
organisations that conducted a pay audit and took additional actions with those that did not take any further
action and those that did not undertake a pay gap audit at all.
Finally, we put this relationship to the test, by designing an empirical model that assesses this relationship
and at the same time, takes into account other factors that may also be playing a role in the changes that we
can see in gender pay gaps over time. And importantly, we find out which actions or combinations of actions
are likely to gain more traction when it comes to narrowing the gender pay gap.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
30
The proportion of
employers undertaking
a pay gap analysis has
increased from %
to % in the four
years to 2016-17.
POLICIES AND ACTIONS
Well-designed policies, together with action can improve the places that we live and work. Our workplaces
can become safer and healthier, more productive, happier and more equitable.
Every year since 2014, the Workplace Gender Equality Agency has asked more than 11,000 Australian
organisations to report on the actions they have taken to address gender pay gaps among their 4 million plus
workforce. The organisations report on whether they have formal policies or strategies in place when it comes
to remunerating their employees, whether or not a pay gap audit has been conducted and whether any
actions have taken place as a result of this audit.
Employers with a formal remuneration policy or strategy
Australian employers are now more than ever before taking pay equity seriously. In just the four years of
WGEA reporting history alone, the proportion of employers with a formal remuneration policy or strategy has
increased by 10 percentage points – from % in 2013-14 to % in 2016-17 (Figure 3).
Simultaneously, the proportion of employers undertaking a pay gap analysis has increased from % to
%, capturing over million employees. The biggest increase in this behaviour has occurred in the last
two reporting years, where the proportion of organisations undertaking a pay gap analysis grew by almost 11
percentage points, from % in 2015-16 to % in 2016-17.
FIGURE 6
Formal remuneration policy or strategy, pay gap analysis, 2013-14 to 2016-17
Pe
rc
en
ta
ge
o
f e
m
pl
oy
er
s
2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
Policy or Strategy Pay gap analysis
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2013-14 to 2016-17.
Improvements in the number of organisations conducting a pay gap analysis can be found across all
industries, however some industries start from a higher baseline, whereas others have jumped considerably in
this activity of late (Table 8).
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
31BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Almost two-thirds of organisations in the Financial and Insurance Services sector have undertaken a pay gap
analysis in 2016-17, representing an increase of percentage points between 2015-16 and 2016-17. The
Finance sector was ranked first place for conducting a pay gap analysis in both 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services ranks second and Mining a close third in terms of organisations
that have undertaken a pay gap analysis. Mining has seen a big increase in the proportion of firms embarking
on a pay gap analysis – rising by percentage points between 2015-16 and 2016-17 to 60%.
The Public Administration and Safety sector has also witnessed some big shifts in organisations undertaking
a pay gap analysis between 2015-16 and 2016-17, increasing by percentage points in this period.
Wholesale Trade, Administrative and Support Services and Information Media and Telecommunications
sectors have also seen big increases in the proportion of firms reporting having conducted a pay gap analysis.
TABLE 8
Employers that undertook a pay gap analysis by sector, 2015-16 and 2016-17
Industry 2015-16 2016-17 Difference
% Rank % Rank % Rank
Financial and Insurance Services % 1 % 1 +% 18
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services % 2 % 2 +% 10
Mining % 3 % 3 +% 2
Public Administration and Safety % 5 % 4 +% 1
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services % 4 % 5 +% 14
Information Media and Telecommunications % 6 % 6 +% 5
Wholesale Trade % 8 % 7 +% 3
Construction % 7 % 8 +% 9
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services % 9 % 9 +% 13
Arts and Recreation Services % 10 % 10 +% 15
Manufacturing % 11 % 11 +% 12
Other Services % 13 % 12 +% 8
Transport, Postal and Warehousing % 12 % 13 +% 11
Administrative and Support Services % 15 % 14 +% 4
Retail Trade % 14 % 15 +% 17
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing % 16 % 16 +% 6
Accommodation and Food Services % 18 % 17 +% 7
Health Care and Social Assistance % 19 % 18 +% 16
Education and Training % 17 % 19 +% 19
Total % % +%
Source: WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
The table shows that organisations in the female-dominated sectors of Education and Training and Health
Care and Social Assistance have the lowest rates of reporting having undertaken a pay gap analysis. Less
than 1 in 5 organisations within the Education and Training sector have undertaken a pay gap analysis
(%), however, this has improved between 2015-16 and 2016-17 (+ percentage points). Just over 20% of
organisations within the Health Care and Social Assistance sector have conducted a pay gap analysis – up
percentage points since 2015-16.
Almost two-thirds of
organisations in the
Finance sector have
undertaken a pay gap
analysis.
Less than 1 in 5
organisations in
the Education and
Training sectors have
undertaken a pay gap
analysis.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
32
Actions taken on pay equity
Among reporting organisations that conducted a pay gap analysis, more than 50% also reported taking
action in light of the results. The most common type of action was to report the results of the analysis to the
Executive (Figure 7). In 2016-17 just over 1 in 4 organisations reported their pay gap analysis to the Executive –
an increase from just under 1 in 5 in 2014-15.
Analysis of performance ratings and performance pay was a common action following a pay gap analysis. In
2014-15, % of organisations that conducted a pay gap analysis also analysed performance pay – by 2016-17
this had increased to % of firms.
A big jump in the proportion of organisations correcting like-for-like pay gaps as a result of undertaking a pay
gap audit is evident, increasing from % to % in the two years to 2016-17.
And while reporting pay gap analyses to the Board has grown over time, from % in 2014-15 to % in
2016-17, this type of action remains one of the less frequent responses to having undertaken a pay gap analysis.
In results not shown, reporting pay gap analysis results to employers and to the public are very rare events, with
fewer than 1% of organisations taking this action.
FIGURE 7
Actions taken as a result of pay gap analysis, 2014-15 to 2016-17
Pe
rc
en
ta
ge
(%
)
Reported pay
equity to Board
Reported
pay equity to
Executive
Analysed
commencement
salaries
Analysed
performance
ratings
Analysed
performance
pay
Corrected
like-for-like
gaps
2014-15 2015-16 2016-17
%
% %
%
% %
%
%
%
%
%
%
%
% %
%
%
%
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2014-15, 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Drilling down to industry sectors, the type and prevalence of actions as a result of undertaking a pay
gap analysis vary considerably (Figure 8). In general, the proportion of organisations within each sector
having taken a particular action as a result of a pay gap analysis has increased in the two years to 2016-17
(comparing the solid shape: 2016-17, with the line: 2014-15).
More than 1 in 4
organisations that
undertook a pay gap
analysis reported
these results to the
Executive.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
33BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Among organisations within the Finance and Insurance sector that conducted a pay gap analysis, the most
common response was to report this analysis to the Executive. Almost half (%) of organisations in the
Finance sector embark upon this behaviour, compared to only one quarter across all organisations that
undertook a pay gap analysis. This action has increased considerably in the last two years of reporting – an
increase of over 19 percentage points between 2014-15 and 2016-17. The Finance and Insurance sector also
has the highest rates of reporting pay gap analyses to the Board (%); analysis of performance ratings
(%) and analysis of commencement salaries (%). They also rank second when it comes to actions
taken to correct like-for-like pay gaps and analysis of performance pay.
The Rental, Hiring and Real Estate sector has the highest proportion of organisations that conducted a pay
gap analysis and subsequently analysed performance pay (%). The sector also has the highest proportion
of organisations that corrected-like-for-like pay gaps (%), representing a considerable increase from
only % in 2014-15. The prevalence of reporting pay gap analyses to the Executive has also increased
substantially in this sector – more than doubling from 16 to 34% in the two years to 2016-17. Reporting pay
gap results to the Executive has also become one of the more frequent responses for organisations operating
within the Utilities sector, however analysing performance ratings and performance pay has become a less
frequent response among firms that have undertaken a pay gap analysis.
The frequency with which the Finance and Insurance, Rental, Hiring and Real Estate, and Utilities sectors
embark on performance pay analysis as a response to a gender pay gap is commensurate with the wage and
salary setting systems that often accompany these sectors. The three sectors have the largest ‘male bonus’
premium across all industries, that is, the difference between what men and women are paid beyond that
of their base salary (Cassells, Duncan & Ong 2016). These two sectors are renowned for performance pay
measures operating within their remuneration systems, with men typically accessing a greater total salary in
comparison to their female peers, particularly among managerial levels.
Mining has also seen a considerable increase in actioned organisational responses to pay gap analyses. In
the latest WGEA reporting data, % of organisations in the Mining sector that undertook a pay gap analysis
also reported these results to the Executive. This represents an increase of 17 percentage points since
2014-15, where only % of firms took this next step. And around 1 in 3 organisations in the mining sector
took steps to correct like-for-like gaps after having first conducted a pay gap analysis.
In contrast, organisations within the Health Care and Social Assistance sectors are among those with the
lowest rates of conducting a pay gap analysis and subsequent actions stemming from the analysis. Of those
organisations within the Health Care and Social Assistance sector that undertook a pay gap analysis, the most
common response was to correct like-for-like gaps (%), followed by reporting the pay gap analysis results
to the Executive (%). This sector typically reports lower gender pay gaps than other industries.
Organisations within the Retail Trade, and Accommodation and Food Services sectors also have low rates
of conducting pay gap analyses and actions stemming from these relative to other sectors. Both sectors
are typically heavily reliant on award and collective workplace agreements, which may in some respects
induce a level of complacency. Among those organisations in the Retail sector that undertook a pay gap
analysis, the most common preceding action was to report these results to the Executive (%). Within
the Accommodation and Food Services sector, only % of those that conducted a pay gap analysis also
reported these results to the Executive.
Almost half of
organisations in the
Finance sector report
the results of their pay
gap analysis to the
Executive, compared to
1 in 4 across all sectors.
Only % of
organisations within
the Accommodation
and Food Services
sector go on to report
the results of their pay
gap analysis to the
Executive.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
34
FI
GU
RE
8
Ac
tio
ns
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as
a
re
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of
p
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g
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| W
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Ge
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SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
35BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
FI
GU
RE
8
(c
on
tin
ue
d)
Ac
tio
ns
ta
ke
n
as
a
re
su
lt
of
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g
ap
a
na
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s b
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, 2
01
4-
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a
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2
01
6-
17
So
ur
ce
: B
an
kw
es
t C
ur
tin
E
co
no
m
ic
s C
en
tr
e
| W
GE
A
Ge
nd
er
E
qu
al
ity
d
at
a
20
14
-1
5
an
d
20
16
-1
7.
Ed
u
ca
ti
on
&
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ra
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et
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rt
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.0
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0.
0%
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
36
FI
GU
RE
8
(c
on
tin
ue
d)
Ac
tio
ns
ta
ke
n
as
a
re
su
lt
of
p
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ap
a
na
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s b
y
se
ct
or
, 2
01
4-
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a
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2
01
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17
So
ur
ce
: B
an
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SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
37BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
ACTIONS AND OUTCOMES
Employer action on pay equity has substantially improved over time, but has this made a difference to pay
equity? This special investigation extends the previous analysis on policies and actions on pay equity, by
assessing the relationship between these actions and their impact on the gender pay gap over time.
We select organisations that are observed in both the 2015-16 and 2016-17 WGEA reporting data and examine
what actions they took in 2015-16 and the subsequent change in the gender pay gap between the two years.
In the following section, we examine the extent to which these relationships remain, when other factors that
may also be influencing the gender pay gap are taken into account.
Pay gap actions and outcomes – Managers
Changes in the gender pay gap among managers based on whether a pay gap audit was undertaken in
2015-16 are shown in both percentage point (Figure 9) and dollar (Figure 10) values. A clear pattern is evident,
revealing that firms who conducted a pay gap audit are more likely to have seen a decrease in the managerial
gender pay gap over time, especially if specific actions accompanied the audit.
FIGURE 9
Change in managerial gender pay gap - audit and actions
Ch
an
ge
in
g
en
de
r p
ay
g
ap
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
(p
pt
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
GPG change (base salary) GPG change (total salary)
All Managers
Note: All business change for a specific occupation will not equate to that reported in ‘The Big Picture’ section as this analysis is based on
a selection of firms observed in both the 2016 and 2017 WGEA reporting data. See Glossary and Technical Notes for more details about this
occupation classifications.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Among organisations that did not undertake a pay gap audit, the gender pay gap on base salary fell by
around half () of a percentage point. This compares to of a percentage point for those that
undertook an audit in 2015-16 but had no follow up actions, and for those that conducted a pay gap
analysis and took action.
The effect is even bigger for changes in total remuneration. Organisations that conducted a pay gap audit
and pursued actions stemming from this audit saw an average reduction in the managerial pay gap of
percentage points on total remuneration. This compares to a reduction of of a percentage point for
organisations that took no action at all.
Employer action
on pay equity has
substantially improved
over time, but has this
made a difference to
pay equity?
Organisations that
undertook a pay gap
audit are more likely to
have seen a decrease
in their gender pay gap
over time, especially
if specific actions
accompanied the
audit.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
38
The respective dollar figure changes reveal that among organisations that did not conduct a pay gap analysis in
2015-16 or 2016-17, the change in men and women’s base salaries remained relatively stable over time. Among
these same organisations, average total remuneration grew more for men than women between 2015-16 and
20116-17 - $3,051 and $2,625 respectively.
Organisations that conducted a pay gap analysis, but did not take any action saw small increases in both
base and total salaries for male managers, and much larger increases (relatively) for female managers. On the
other hand, organisations that conducted a pay gap audit and took further action saw both men and women’s
managerial salaries increase, but by a greater amount among female managers. Female managers in these
organisations saw their average total salary increase by $6,806, whereas male managers total remuneration
increased by $5,382 on average.
FIGURE 10
Change in managerial pay - audit and actions, base and total salary
Ch
an
ge
in
a
vv
er
ag
e
ba
se
sa
la
ry
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
($
p
er
a
nn
um
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
Male full-time base salary (average) Female full-time base salary (average)
+$2,149 +$2,249
+$3,791
+$4,715
+$2,595
+$3,091
+$1,032
+$1,839
Base Salary
+5,000
+4,000
+3,000
+2,000
+1,000
0,000
-1,000
Ch
an
ge
in
a
vv
er
ag
e
to
ta
l r
em
un
er
at
io
n
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
($
p
er
a
nn
um
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
Male full-time total salary (average) Female full-time total salary (average)
Total Salary
+$3,051
+$2,625
+$5,382
+$6,806
+$3,478
+$4,162
+$0,387
+$2,681
+7,000
+6,000
+5,000
+4,000
+3,000
+2,000
+1,000
0,000
-1,000
Note: All business change for a specific occupation will not equate to that reported in ‘The Big Picture’ section as this analysis is based on
a selection of firms observed in both the 2016 and 2017 WGEA reporting data. See Glossary and Technical Notes for more details about this
occupation classifications.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
39BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
The gender pay
gap among top-tier
managers reduced
on average by 5
percentage points for
those organisations
that both undertook
a pay gap audit and
took action
Firms that undertook
a pay gap audit and
took action saw male
top-tier manager’s
salaries decrease
by almost $4,000 on
average and female
top-tier managers
salaries increase by
around $24,000 on
average.
Pay gap actions and outcomes – Key Management Personnel
Turning to top-tier managers, we can see a very definitive relationship between organisations conducting
a pay gap analysis, taking further action and the subsequent change in the gender pay gap (Figure 11). In
contrast, organisations that did not conduct a pay gap analysis in 2015-16 saw very little change in both base
and total pay gaps for top-tier managers. However, those that did undertake a pay gap analysis saw the base
salary gender pay gap reduce by percentage points and total gender pay gap fall by percentage points.
FIGURE 11
Change in Key Management Personnel’s gender pay gap - audit and actions
Ch
an
ge
in
g
en
de
r p
ay
g
ap
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
(p
pt
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
GPG change (base salary) GPG change (total salary)
Key Management Personnel
+
Note: All business change for a specific occupation will not equate to that reported in ‘The Big Picture’ section as this analysis is based on
a selection of firms observed in both the 2016 and 2017 WGEA reporting data. See Glossary and Technical Notes for more details about this
occupation classifications.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Noticeably, the gender pay gap among top-tier managers reduced on average by 5 percentage points for
those organisations that both undertook a pay gap audit and took action (Figure 11). In monetary terms,
this equates to a decrease in total remuneration of almost $4,000 on average among top-tier male managers,
and an increase in total salary for top-tier female managers by around $24,000 between 2015-16 and 2016-17
(Figure 12).
This large adjustment in discretionary pay paid at the top level of organisations demonstrates the importance
of combining pay gap analyses with further action as essential steps towards narrowing the gender pay gap.
However, it is important to note that these adjustments do not eliminate pay gaps altogether. The
re-calibration of male top-tier salaries has seen these managers take a cut in pay, but this pay cut represents
less than 1% of the group's average total salary in the year prior to taking action. And while female top-tier
mangers' have seen a pay rise of around %, there still exists an average $85,000 gender pay gap within this
group (narrowing from $112,000 in the previous period).
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
40
FIGURE 12
Change in top-tier manager’s pay - audit and actions, base and total salary
Ch
an
ge
in
g
en
de
r p
ay
g
ap
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
($
p
er
a
nn
um
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
Male full-time base salary (average) Female full-time base salary (average)
Base Salary
+$1,472+$0,378
+25,000
+20,000
+15,000
+10,000
+5,000
-5,000
-10,000
+$6,277 +$6,155
+$10,348
+$7,628
+$9,823
+$4,392
Ch
an
ge
in
a
vv
er
ag
e
to
ta
l r
em
un
er
at
io
n
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
($
p
er
a
nn
um
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
Male full-time total salary (average) Female full-time total salary (average)
Total Salary
+$9,349
+$7,468
-$3,994
+$23,682
+$4,406
+$11,201
-$4,727
+$6,754
+25,000
+20,000
+15,000
+10,000
+5,000
-5,000
-10,000
Note: All business change for a specific occupation will not equate to that reported in ‘The Big Picture’ section as this analysis is based on
a selection of firms observed in both the 2016 and 2017 WGEA reporting data. See Glossary and Technical Notes for more details about this
occupation classifications.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
41BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Pay gap actions and outcomes – Executives
The Executive management tier is among the highest paid of all managers – second only to Key Management
Personnel. Female executives can expect to earn on average around $235,000 in total salary and male
executives more than $309,000 – an average gender pay gap of %.
For Executives, the introduction of a pay gap analysis and subsequent actions stemming from this analyses
has similar outcomes to that of Key Management Personnel (Figure 13). Organisations that did not undertake
a pay gap analysis saw the gender pay gap among Executives increase by around 1 percentage point on both
base and total salary measures. This compares to an overall decrease in the gender pay gap across the entire
Executive occupation classification of percentage points on total salary.
FIGURE 13
Change in Executive managers’ gender pay gap - audit and actions
Ch
an
ge
in
g
en
de
r p
ay
g
ap
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
(p
pt
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
GPG change (base salary) GPG change (total salary)
Executives
+
+
Note: All business change for a specific occupation will not equate to that reported in ‘The Big Picture’ section as this analysis is based on
a selection of firms observed in both the 2016 and 2017 WGEA reporting data. See Glossary and Technical Notes for more details about this
occupation classifications.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Organisations that undertook a pay gap analysis and also took action saw the Executive gender pay gap
on base salary decline by one percentage point, and on total salary by around percentage points. This
decrease is driven by an overall fall in average total and base salary of male executives together with an
increase in the salaries of female executives (Figure 14). Total remuneration among male Executives operating
in firms that undertook both a pay gap analysis and audit fell by around $5,500 on average, and rose among
female Executives by around $1,300.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
42
FIGURE 14
Change in Executive manager’s pay - audit and actions, base and total salary
Ch
an
ge
in
a
vv
er
ag
e
ba
se
sa
la
ry
20
16
to
2
01
7
($
p
er
a
nn
um
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 or 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
Male full-time base salary (average) Female full-time base salary (average)
Base Salary
+$4,644
+$1,999
-$1,667
+$1,171
+$1,634
+$2,027
-$2,493 -$3,315
+8,000
+6,000
+4,000
+2,000
0,000
-2,000
-4,000
Ch
an
ge
in
a
vv
er
ag
e
to
ta
l r
em
un
er
at
io
n
-
20
16
o
r 2
01
7
($
p
er
a
nn
um
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 or 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
Male full-time total salary (average) Female full-time total salary (average)
Total Salary
+$5,024
+$1,812
-$5,640
+$1,264
+$0,470
+$2,735
-$4,638
-$3,196
+8,000
+6,000
+4,000
+2,000
0,000
-2,000
-4,000
-6,000
Note: All business change for a specific occupation will not equate to that reported in ‘The Big Picture’ section as this analysis is based on
a selection of firms observed in both the 2016 and 2017 WGEA reporting data. See Glossary and Technical Notes for more details about this
occupation classifications.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
43BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Pay gap actions and outcomes – Non-Managers
The relationship between pay gap analyses, actions and gender pay gap outcomes for the non-managerial
workforce is relatively weak compared to the managerial workforce (Figure 15). This is a somewhat expected
outcome, as the non-managerial workforce is more likely to be regulated by modern awards and enterprise
agreements, with potentially fewer levers for organisations to pull when it comes to adjusting wages. On the
other hand, pay setting among the managerial workforce is typically more discretionary in nature, particularly
when it comes to salary amounts beyond that of the base salary.
Among organisations that undertook a pay gap analysis and those that conducted a pay gap analysis and
also took action, very little change is observed for the non-managerial gender pay gap. This pattern exists
when examining both base and total salary. For those organisations that did not undertake a pay gap
analysis, very little change in the base salary gender pay gap is observed over time, however the total salary
gender pay gap declined by percentage points. Total salary for the non-managerial workforce is more
likely to be made up of both superannuation and overtime hours rather than bonuses and performance pay
that managers tend to have access to. This result suggests that overtime hours available to this workforce
reduced during this period, more so than other workforce groupings that did take action on pay equity.
FIGURE 15
Change in non-managers’ gender pay gap - audit and actions
Ch
an
ge
in
g
en
de
r p
ay
g
ap
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
(p
pt
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
GPG change (base salary) GPG change (total salary)
Non-Managers
+
+
+
Note: All business change for a specific occupation will not equate to that reported in ‘The Big Picture’ section as this analysis is based on
a selection of firms observed in both the 2016 and 2017 WGEA reporting data. See Glossary and Technical Notes for more details about this
occupation classifications.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
44
FIGURE 16
Change in non-manager’s pay - audit and actions, base and total salary
Ch
an
ge
in
a
vv
er
ag
e
ba
se
sa
la
ry
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
($
p
er
a
nn
um
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
Male full-time base salary (average) Female full-time base salary (average)
Base Salary
+$1,924 +$1,922 +$2,251 +$2,220 +$2,097 +$1,977+$2,199 +$1,583
+8,000
+6,000
+4,000
+2,000
0,000
-2,000
Ch
an
ge
in
a
vv
er
ag
e
to
ta
l r
em
un
er
at
io
n
-
20
16
to
2
01
7
($
p
er
a
nn
um
)
No Gap Analysis
conducted in either
2016 to 2017
Conducted Gap
Analysis, no action
Conducted Gap
Analysis, and
actioned
All
businesses
Male full-time total salary (average) Female full-time total salary (average)
Total Salary
+$0,822
+$2,144
+$3,101
+$2,416
+$2,001
+$2,163+$2,163
+$1,759
+5,000
+4,000
+3,000
+2,000
+1,000
0,000
-1,000
Note: All business change for a specific occupation will not equate to that reported in ‘The Big Picture’ section as this analysis is based on
a selection of firms observed in both the 2016 and 2017 WGEA reporting data. See Glossary and Technical Notes for more details about this
occupation classifications.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | WGEA Gender Equality data 2015-16 and 2016-17.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
45BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
WHICH ACTIONS MATTER THE MOST?
In the previous section we uncovered a clear association between actions on gender pay gaps and a
narrowing of the gender pay gap, especially among the managerial workforce. In this section we test this
relationship further through controlling for other factors that may also be linked with gender pay gap changes,
such as organisational size, the composition of the firm’s leadership, and the industry sector the business
operates in. And critically, we look to determine which actions or combinations of actions are likely to be
more effective in narrowing gender pay gaps over time.
Research findings presented earlier in this report show that gender pay gaps are generally wider when
measured in terms of total remuneration rather than base salaries. The report also highlights how gender pay
gaps in total remuneration have narrowed more for some industry sectors that historically offer relatively high
rates of discretionary pay.
But is this the case across all occupational levels within an organisation? In which industry sectors have pay
inequities narrowed most? And is there a general relationship between discretionary pay and either the size of
the gender pay gap, or the change in gender pay gap over time?
To provide context to the discussion on which pay equity actions work, this section seeks to understand the
relationship between discretionary pay and gender pay gap across industry sectors in Australia.
Discretionary Pay
The first BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Insights report revealed how male and female workers’ access to
discretionary pay, whether in the form of performance related pay, superannuation, overtime pay or other
discretionary salary components, differs across industry sectors. This highlighted the existence of a ‘male
bonus premium’ in which gender pay gaps in total remuneration were significantly larger than the gender gap
in base salaries.
Figure 17 plots the gender pay gaps in total remuneration across industry sectors against the average rates
of discretionary pay in those industries, expressed as a share of average base salaries. Panel (a) in Figure 17
looks at pay gaps for all full-time workers, while panel (b) focuses on managerial occupations only. Gender
pay gaps are plotted for 2016 (shown as blue squares) and 2017 (orange triangles) to show how industry pay
differentials have changed over time, with the overall industry average providing a baseline against which
specific industries can be compared.
The key story to emerge from Figure 17 is just how much wider the spread of discretionary pay is among
full-time managers, and also how much more varied gender pay gaps in total salaries are across industry
sectors. For full-time managers in particular, we also see a positive correlation between gender pay gaps and
discretionary pay. Those industries with higher rates of discretionary pay – an average of 37% above base
salaries in Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services, and nearly 50% in Financial and Insurance Services - also
have larger gaps in total remuneration between male and female managers.
Industries with higher
rates of discretionary
pay – particularly
Rental, Hiring and
Real Estate Services,
and Financial
and Insurance
Services - also have
larger managerial
gender gaps in total
remuneration.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
46
FIGURE 17
Relative gender pay gaps and average discretionary pay share by industry: 2016-17
Ge
nd
er
p
ay
g
ap
-
20
15
-1
6
an
d
20
16
-1
7
(%
)
Discretionary pay as a share of base salary (%)
0
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Administrative and Support Services
Arts and Recreation Services
Education and Training
Agriculture, Forestry
and Fishing
Wholesale Trade
MiningHealth Care and
Social Assistance
Other Services
Construction
Manufacturing
Financial and Insurance Services
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services
Public Administration
and Safety
Professional, Scientific and Technical
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services
Transport, Postal and Warehousing
Information Media and Telecommunications
Accommodation and Food Services
Retail Trade
(a) all full-time workers
GPG 2015-16 GPG 2016-17
ALL INDUSTRIES
Ge
nd
er
p
ay
g
ap
-
20
15
-1
6
an
d
20
16
-1
7
(%
)
Discretionary pay as a share of base salary (%)
0
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Administrative and Support Services
Arts and Recreation Services
Education and Training
Agriculture, Forestry
and Fishing
Wholesale Trade
Mining
Health Care and
Social Assistance
Other Services
Manufacturing
Financial and
Insurance Services
Rental, Hiring and
Real Estate Services
Public Administration
and Safety
Professional, Scientific
and Technical
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services
Transport, Postal and Warehousing
Information Media and Telecommunications
Accommodation and
Food Services
Retail Trade
(b) all full-time managers
GPG 2015-16 GPG 2016-17
ALL INDUSTRIES
Construction
Note: Each chart maps the rate of discretionary pay by industry sector, expressed as the share of total remuneration above base salary.
Hence, a figure of relates to a situation in which average total remuneration is 20% higher than average base salary. Percentage gender
pay gaps in total remuneration are shown for 2015-16 (blue squares) and 2016-17 (orange triangles).
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | Authors’ calculations based on WGEA workplace data collection, 2015-16 and 2016-17.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
47BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Interestingly, there are exceptions to this rule. For example, the Mining sector offers high average rates of
discretionary pay of up to 39% above base salary for managers, yet retains relatively low gender pay gaps in
total remuneration – some % in 2016 falling to % by 2017.
It is worth noting that Finance and Insurance companies reduced the average gender pay gap in total salaries
between 2016 and 2017, from % to %. In contrast, the average total salary pay gap for companies
in the Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services sector has increased by percentage points over the same
period, to 37%.
Service industries on the other hand – particularly Public Administration and Health Care and Social
Assistance – are relatively low compared to other industry sectors in both discretionary pay and in the size of
the gender pay gap.
Do pay equity actions lead to better gender pay outcomes?
The strongest evidence of a causal link is provided when changes in gender pay gaps over time can be traced
to specific actions or combinations of actions, while controlling as far as possible for other factors that may
also be driving changes in the gender pay gap.
The WGEA data collection tracks the pay equity strategies initiated by companies over time, and also monitors
how pay equity outcomes change over successive surveys. This provides us with a unique opportunity to
answer the question: Do pay equity actions lead to better gender pay outcomes?
Our research strategy uses regression3 methods to estimate how changes in gender pays gaps between
2015-16 and 2016-17 are driven by pay equity actions such as reporting to the Board or Executive, reviewing
performance pay and correcting like-for-like pay gaps.
These estimates are reported for full-time managers and non-managers alongside the overall gender
pay gaps for all full-time workers. Each regression includes controls for industry sector, firm size, gender
segregation, and female Board membership, which has previously been shown to have a positive impact on
narrowing gender pay gaps (Cassells et al. 2016).
Importantly, we test the impact of specific actions both in isolation and in combination with each other, in
order to uncover the most influential actions that companies can take in addressing gender pay gaps. The
specific actions we test are as follows:
• reporting pay gaps to company Executives and Boards (RepBrdEx);
• analysing commencement salaries (CommSal);
• analysing performance ratings and performance pay (PerfPay); and
• correcting like-for-like pay gaps (CorrL4L).
Table 9 reports these estimates, illustrating the effect of particular actions or combinations of actions on the
change in the gender pay gap between 2015-16 and 2016-17, measured in both base and total salary. Figure
18 and Figure 19 charts the estimated marginal effects of specific combinations of pay equity actions on
gender pay outcomes as captured in Table 9.
Mining companies
offer relatively high
rates of discretionary
pay - up to 39%
above base salary for
managers - yet retain
low gender pay gaps
in total remuneration
of % in 2017.
3 See Glossary and Technical Notes for further detail about regression analysis as a methodology.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
48
FIGURE 18
Gender pay gaps in base salary and total remuneration by combination of pay equity actions: all full-time workers
Ch
an
ge
in
g
en
de
r p
ay
g
ap
fr
om
2
01
5-
16
a
ct
io
ns
:
ne
ga
tiv
e
=
GP
G
re
du
ct
io
n,
p
os
iti
ve
=
G
PG
in
cr
ea
se
(p
pt
)
Ga
p
an
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ys
is
: n
o
sp
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ifi
c
ac
tio
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Ac
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ns
: R
ep
or
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Bo
ar
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E
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(R
eb
Bd
Ex
)
Ac
tio
ns
: A
na
ly
se
C
om
m
en
ce
m
en
t S
al
ar
ie
s (
Co
m
m
Sa
l)
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, C
om
m
Sa
l
Ac
tio
ns
: A
na
ly
se
P
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an
ce
P
ay
(P
er
fP
ay
)
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
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, P
er
fP
ay
Ac
tio
ns
: C
om
m
Sa
l,
Pe
rfP
ay
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
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, C
om
m
Sa
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Pe
rfP
ay
Ac
tio
ns
: C
or
re
ct
ed
li
ke
-fo
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ik
e
ga
ps
(C
or
rL
4L
)
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, C
or
rL
4L
Ac
tio
ns
: C
om
m
Sa
l,
Co
rr
L4
L
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, C
om
m
Sa
l,
Co
rr
L4
L
Ac
tio
ns
: P
er
fP
ay
, C
or
rL
4L
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, P
er
fP
ay
, C
or
rL
4L
Ac
tio
ns
: C
om
m
Sa
l,
Pe
rfP
ay
, C
or
rL
4L
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, C
om
m
Sa
l,
Pe
rfP
ay
, C
or
rL
4L
All FT Workers - base salary All FT Workers - total rem.
+0
.3
-1
.1 -0
.6
-0
.0
+0
.9
-0
.4 -0
.2
-0
.3
-1
.0
-1
.3
-0
.5
-2
.0
-0
.3
+0
.9
-0
.2
+0
.2
-1
.0
+0
.4
+0
.3
-0
.2
-0
.2
-0
.4
-0
.9
-0
.3
-1
.3
-1
.4
+0
.6
-0
.6
-3
.3 -3
.0
-3
.7
-2
.8
+
+
Note: Figures show the percentage point changes in gender pay gaps between 2015-16 and 2016-17 attributable to specific combinations of
pay equity actions undertaken in 2015-16. Data include only those organisations present in both the 2015-16 and 2016-17 WGEA reporting
data, and with both male and female workers in the relevant occupation class.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | Authors’ estimates based on WGEA workplace data collection, 2015-16 and 2016-17.
Figure 18 shows the estimated causal effects of specific combinations of pay equity actions on gender pay
outcomes for full-time workers (Table 9, columns 1 and 2). Two general conclusions can safely be drawn from
these results. First, almost all combinations of pay equity actions contribute to a reduction in gender pay
gaps for full-time workers; and second, most pay equity drive down gender pay gaps in total remuneration by
more than gender pay gaps in base salaries. Looking at the impacts of specific combinations of pay actions on
gender pay outcomes, the following findings are especially worth noting:
• Reviewing performance pay processes to ensure no gender bias, combined with reporting of pay gaps
to Executives and Boards, serves to reduce overall gender pay gaps by an average of percentage
points in total remuneration but with no significant impact on base salary pay gaps.
• Reviewing commencement salaries to ensure no gender bias, combined with the correction of like-for-
like pay gaps, serves to reduce overall gender pay gaps by an average of percentage points in base
salaries, and by percentage points in total remuneration.
• Correcting like-for-like gender pay gaps, combined with reporting to Executives and Boards, serves to
reduce overall org-wide gender pay gaps by an average of percentage points in base salaries, and
percentage points in total remuneration, compared with no pay audit or action.
Correcting like-
for-like gender pay
gaps, combined
with reporting to
Executives and
Boards, serves to
reduce overall org-
wide gender pay gaps
by an average of
percentage points in
total remuneration.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
49BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
TABLE 9
Change in full-time gender pay gaps by combinations of previous years’ audit and actions: all workers, managers and non-managers
Dependent variable
All FT workers All FT managers All FT non-managers
Percentage point GPG change: Percentage point GPG change: Percentage point GPG change:
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Base
salary
Total
Rem.
Base
salary
Total
Rem.
Base
salary
Total
Rem.
Regressors
Firm size (relative to 100-249 employees)
Firm size: 250 to 499 employees * * ***
Firm size: 500 to 999 employees
Firm size: 1000 to 4999 employees
Firm size: 5000+ employees * ***
Industry (relative to all industry average)
Agriculture, forestry and fishing * 19 *** 19 4 4 16 ** 19
Mining *** 1 *** 1 *** 1 ** 2 ** 2 10
Manufacturing ** 6 9 5 8 11 * 14
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Servi * 2 ** 2 11 14 * 1 ** 1
Construction *** 3 8 ** 3 5 8 ** 16
Wholesale Trade ** 17 ** 17 *** 18 *** 18 9 7
Retail Trade 11 14 *** 17 *** 17 6 6
Accommodation and Food Services * 16 16 *** 19 *** 19 5 4
Transport, Postal and Warehousing 8 ** 3 14 13 10 * 5
Information Media and Telecommunication 10 7 7 6 15 12
Financial and Insurance Services *** 4 ** 4 6 9 4 9
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services 5 13 8 16 12 13
Professional, Scientific and Technical 9 ** 5 15 * 15 7 *** 3
Administrative and Support Services 14 ** 18 16 12 14 ** 18
Public Administration and Safety 7 10 2 1 17 17
Education and Training 13 15 12 11 *** 18 ** 15
Health Care and Social Assistance 15 12 13 7 13 11
Arts and Recreation Services 12 11 9 10 3 * 2
Other Services ** 18 6 10 3 ** 19 8
Female dominance (relative to 40% to 60% women)
Firm has 0-20% female workers *** *** *** *** **
Firm has 20%-40% female workers **
Firm has 60%-80% female workers
Firm has 80%-100% female workers
Proportion of female Board chairs *** ** *
Proportion of female Board members **
Pay audit and actions (relative to no gap analysis)
Gap analysis, no specific actions *** ** *
Actions: Report to Board or Executive (RebBdEx)
Actions: Analyse Commencement Salaries (CommSal) *
Actions: RepBdEx,CommSal * ***
Actions: Analyse Performance Pay (PerfPay) **
Actions: RepBdEx,PerfPay * ***
Actions: CommSal,PerfPay *** ***
Actions: RepBdEx,CommSal,PerfPay
Actions: Corrected like-for-like gaps (CorrL4L)
Actions: RepBdEx,CorrL4L ** *** ***
Actions: CommSal,CorrL4L ** *** ** **
Actions: RepBdEx,CommSal,CorrL4L ** **
Actions: PerfPay,CorrL4L ** ** **
Actions: RepBdEx,PerfPay,CorrL4L
Actions: CommSal,PerfPay,CorrL4L ** **
Actions: RepBdEx,CommSal,PerfPay,CorrL4L **
Company has overall remuneration strategy * **
Constant
Number of firms 4,167 4,167 3,913 3,913 4,106 4,106
F-statistic
Note: Regressions are estimated on samples that include only those organisations in both the 2015-16 and 2016-17 waves of the WGEA reporting data, and who have both male
and female workers in the relevant occupation class. All dependent variables relate to the percentage point change in gender pay gap the between 2015-16 and 2016-17 WGEA
samples. Specific dependent variables are: percentage point change in overall gender pay gap in base salary (column 1) and total remuneration (column 2) for full-time workers;
percentage point change in gender pay gaps in base salary (column 3) and total remuneration (column 4) between male and female full-time managers, and; percentage point
change in gender pay gaps in base salary (column 5) and total remuneration (column 6) for full-time non-managerial workers. Pay audit and action combinations relate to
actions during 2015. Parameter significance is indicated for p-values of less than 10% (*), 5% (**) and 1% (***).
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | Authors’ estimates based on WGEA workplace data collection, 2015-16 and 2016-17.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
50
Managers
Findings reported earlier in this report showed that managerial gender pay gaps were more likely to be
impacted by workplace pay audits, and resulting actions stemming from these, than the non-managerial
workforce. Here, we test this relationship further and pay particular attention to the role that pay equity
actions have on total remuneration, which as demonstrated earlier, plays a much bigger role within the
managerial workforce.
Figure 19 shows the estimated causal effects of specific combinations of pay equity actions on gender pay
outcomes for full-time managers (Table 9, columns 3 and 4). Among the findings, the most striking are that:
• companies that initiate actions to correct like-for-like gender pay gaps, combined with reporting to
Executives and Boards, are shown to reduce managerial gender pay gaps by an average of
percentage points in base salaries, and percentage points in total remuneration compared
with companies that undertake no pay audit or action.
• companies that review of performance pay processes to ensure no gender bias, combined with reporting
of pay gaps to Executives and Boards, are shown to reduce managerial gender pay gaps by an average of
percentage points in base salaries, and by percentage points in total remuneration.
• companies that review commencement salaries to ensure no gender bias, combined with the correction of
like-for-like pay gaps, are shown to reduce managerial gender pay gaps by an average of percentage
points in base salaries, and by percentage points in total remuneration.
The findings reported in Table 9, and especially the illustrations in Figure 18 and Figure 19, represent some
of the strongest empirical evidence to date that improved gender pay outcomes are delivered by companies
that combine pay audits with specific pay equity actions, and reinforce the effectiveness of those actions with
accountability through reporting to company Executives and Boards. These findings also highlight the critical
role that gender diversity in company leadership plays in reducing gender pay gaps.
Companies that
initiate actions to
correct like-for-
like gender pay
gaps, combined
with reporting to
Executives and
Boards, are shown to
reduce managerial
gender pay gaps
by an average of
percentage
points in base
salaries, and
percentage points in
total remuneration
compared with
companies that
undertake no pay
audit or action.
SPECIAL INVESTIGATIONS
51BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
FIGURE 19
Gender pay gaps in base salary and total remuneration by combination of pay equity actions: full-time managers
CH
AN
GE
in
g
en
de
r p
ay
g
ap
fr
om
2
01
5-
16
a
ct
io
ns
:
ne
ga
tiv
e
=
GP
G
re
du
ct
io
n,
p
os
iti
ve
=
G
PG
in
cr
ea
se
(p
pt
)
Ga
p
an
al
ys
is
: n
o
sp
ec
ifi
c
ac
tio
ns
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
or
t t
o
Bo
ar
d
or
E
xe
cu
tiv
e
(R
eb
Bd
Ex
)
Ac
tio
ns
: A
na
ly
se
C
om
m
en
ce
m
en
t S
al
ar
ie
s (
Co
m
m
Sa
l)
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
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, C
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Sa
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Ac
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: A
na
ly
se
P
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(P
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)
Ac
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: R
ep
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, P
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Ac
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: C
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Sa
l,
Pe
rfP
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Ac
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: R
ep
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, C
om
m
Sa
l,
Pe
rfP
ay
Ac
tio
ns
: C
or
re
ct
ed
li
ke
-fo
r-l
ik
e
ga
ps
(C
or
rL
4L
)
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, C
or
rL
4L
Ac
tio
ns
: C
om
m
Sa
l,
Co
rr
L4
L
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, C
om
m
Sa
l,
Co
rr
L4
L
Ac
tio
ns
: P
er
fP
ay
, C
or
rL
4L
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, P
er
fP
ay
, C
or
rL
4L
Ac
tio
ns
: C
om
m
Sa
l,
Pe
rfP
ay
, C
or
rL
4L
Ac
tio
ns
: R
ep
Bd
Ex
, C
om
m
Sa
l,
Pe
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, C
or
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FT managers - base salary FT managers - total rem.
+1
.2
-0
.2
+0
.9
-0
.4
+0
.9
-3
.9
+0
.7 +1
.0
-0
.1
-9
.7
-0
.8 -0
.7
-1
.5
+1
.4
-0
.1
+0
.8
-0
.9
+0
.9
-0
.9 -0
.2
+0
.1 +0
.6
-0
.4
-2
.1
-0
.8
-1
.6
+0
.2
-0
.6
-1
2.
7
-1
.7
-4
.2
-7
.3
+
+
Note: Note: Figures show the percentage point changes in gender pay gaps between 2015-16 and 2016-17 attributable to specific
combinations of pay equity actions undertaken in 2015-16. Data include only those organisations present in both the 2015-16 and
2016-17 WGEA reporting data, and with both male and female workers in the relevant occupation class.
Source: Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre | Authors’ estimates based on WGEA workplace data collection, 2015-16 and 2016-17.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
52
BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
DISCUSSION
AND
SUMMARY
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
The BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Insights report series provides some of the most comprehensive analysis on
gender pay gaps currently in Australia. Drawing on unique data source collected by WGEA covering 4 million
employees and more than 11,000 employers, each report shows how gender pay gaps are tracking for full-
time, part-time and casual workers at different levels of occupational seniority, by industry sector, and on
measures relating either to base salaries or total remuneration.
This third report takes the narrative in a new direction, with a series of special investigations that provide hard
evidence on the sorts of actions that companies can take to drive change and promote greater gender pay
equity.
How have gender pay gaps changed?
The latest WGEA reporting data show that the overall gender pay gap in base salaries narrowed marginally to
% in 2017, down percentage points over the year and by percentage points since 2015. Most of this
stems from reductions in gender pay gaps among full-time managers, and more so at more senior managerial
levels.
The picture for non-managers in more mixed. Full-time gender pay gaps in total remuneration increased
between 2015 and 2017 for sales workers (up percentage points to %) and technicians and trade
workers (up percentage points to %) balanced by reductions in the full-time gender pay gap for
professionals (down percentage points to %).
Policies and pay gap audits
This report finds that more Australian organisations than ever before are taking specific actions on pay
equity, especially among companies in the Financial and Insurance and Mining sectors. Almost two-thirds of
organisations in the Finance and Insurance Services and Mining sectors undertook a pay equity audit in 2017,
compared to an industry-wide average of around 38%.
Proportionately, fewer organisations have undertaken a pay gap analysis within female-dominated sectors
such as Education and Training and Health Care and Social Assistance. Only around one sixth of organisations
within the Education and Training sector undertook a pay gap analysis in 2017, although the sector has
improved to some degree between 2016 and 2017. Companies in the Health Care and Social Assistance sector
fare better on this metric, with around 20% of organisations conducting a pay audit in 2017 - nearly double
the share a year earlier.
While gender pay differences in these sectors are generally lower, this shouldn’t lessen the importance of
regular pay audits and policies to drive further progress towards gender pay equity.
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
54
Actions taken on pay gap audits
More than half of those organisations that conducted a pay gap analysis also took definitive action in light
of the results. The most common type of action to take was to report to the Executive, followed by reviewing
performance pay. These behaviours are also more common in sectors where total remuneration includes
a larger share of discretionary pay, such as Finance and Insurance; Rental, Hiring and Real Estate; and the
Utilities sectors.
Some commentators have challenged whether gender pay gaps in Australia are a real and relevant concern,
and argue that inequalities in pay between men and women can be explained by the different ways that
women and men work, or the different roles that women and men play at an equivalent occupational level
within an organisation.
This report series has shown that significant gender pay gaps remain once compositional differences between
women and men are accounted for, by comparing their remuneration at the same level of occupational
seniority, in the same industry, and within the same employment status.
And compelling evidence that pay gaps are a real issue in Australia comes from the actions of the companies
that pay employees’ salaries. More organisations than ever before are implementing specific actions to
address like-for-like pay inequities, nearly doubling from % to 21% in the two years to 2017 among
companies that undertook pay audits.
From actions to outcomes
Nearly two thirds of companies have initiated more than a single action following the conduct of a pay gap
audit. Of those organisations that implemented performance ratings and pay reviews following a pay audit,
nine in ten have introduced other pay equity actions too – whether correcting like-for-like pay gaps, analysing
commencement salaries, or reporting outcomes to the Executive or Board. The same is true whichever action
is examined.
The power of pay equity actions implemented in combination rather than in isolation is even more apparent
for managers. The gender pay gap among top-tier managers reduced on average by 5 percentage points for
those organisations that both undertook a pay gap audit and took action. In monetary terms, this equates to
a decrease in total remuneration of almost $4,000 on average among top-tier male managers, and an increase
in total salary for top-tier female managers of around $24,000 between 2016 and 2017.
Gender pay gaps in total remuneration for full-time managers fell substantially between 2016 and 2017 for
those companies that combined actions to correct like-for-like pay gaps with reporting to the Executive
and Board. Reviews of performance ratings and pay processes are also shown to be more effective when
combined with Executives and Board reporting.
Measurement
combined with action
and accountability
is the trifecta that
drives the strongest
improvements in pay
equity outcomes.
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
55BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Challenges
The findings in this latest BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Insights report also brings into sharp focus some of the
challenges companies face in driving greater pay equity.
First, pay gap audits and actions are shown to be more effective in reducing gender pay differentials for
managerial occupations, and also more in relation to discretionary pay. Industries with higher rates of
discretionary pay also tend to have larger gender gaps in total remuneration among senior managerial
occupations, creating what the first report in this series termed a ‘male bonus premium’.
Reducing the gap in discretionary pay between genders remains a challenge. Progress has been made in
some sectors that provide the highest rates of discretionary pay. Companies in the Financial and Insurance
services sector, for example, have reduced the gender pay gap in total remuneration progressively over three
years from 35% in 2015 to % now. However, the story is somewhat different in Rental, Hiring and Real
Estate Services, where the equivalent pay gap has risen by 2 percentage points to % over the same period.
Second, pay equity actions have reduced gender pay gaps at management level, but have generally been
less effective in driving gender pay equity among non-managerial occupations. Part of the explanation may
relate to the institutional structures in place in the Australian labour market, with non-managerial pay more
commonly regulated by awards and enterprise bargaining agreements.
Whatever the reason, the research findings in this report highlight the imperative for companies to implement
policies to promote gender pay equity at all levels of their organisation.
Charting a course to gender pay equity
So what does a good program of action look like for companies seeking to address gender pay inequities?
1. Pay equity audits in terms of both base salaries and discretionary pay
More companies than ever before undertook a pay equity audit in 2017. This is an encouraging trend,
and demonstrates that more Australian businesses are serious in their commitment to redress gender
imbalances in both base salaries and discretionary pay. The findings in this report show the value of
undertaking pay audits, and critically, taking action as an important step towards narrowing gender pay
gaps at all levels of the organisation.
2. Specific pay actions narrow the gender pay gap
Specific pay equity actions have been shown to have a measurable impact on pay equity. Men’s and
women’s salaries are gradually being brought into line,and more so among senior managers. Reviews of
performance pay, and actions to correct like-for-like pay gaps contribute to a greater degree of fairness
in company remuneration policy, especially at management level. Non-managerial gender pay gaps are
lower for companies that analyse commencement salaries from a pay equity perspective.
3. Pay actions work better in combination than in isolation
Companies are far more likely to initiate multiple pay equity actions in response to a gender pay gap
analysis, rather than focusing on one action alone. And this report shows that an integrated program of
action works. Improved gender pay outcomes are delivered more effectively by those organisations that
undertake pay equity actions in combination.
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4. Reporting on pay equity metrics at Executive and Board level
Reporting on progress at senior leadership and Board level ensures a greater accountability in targeting
organisational gender pay equity. Improved gender pay outcomes are far stronger when companies
combine pay audits with specific pay equity actions, and reinforce the effectiveness of those actions
through reporting to company executives and Boards.
The power of action with accountability proved to be especially effective in narrowing pay differentials
between women and men in more senior positions. For example, actions to correct like-for-like gender
pay gaps are three times as effective in reducing overall pay inequities when combined with reporting to
Executives and Boards. Reviews of performance ratings and pay processes are also more effective when
combined with Executives and Board reporting.
5. Greater female representation on company Boards
Diversity in leadership is key to improving pay equity. This report again shows that greater female Board
membership, has a demonstrably positive impact in driving more equitable pay across all levels of the
organisation. These results reinforce findings from earlier reports in the BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Insights
series.
6. Recognition of the value of business roles within an organisation
Gender pay gaps have narrowed in management roles, but the largest proportionate pay differences still
occur at the top of the organisation. Our findings invite action by businesses to ensure gender equity in
selection, progression and promotion opportunities for the most senior roles in an organisation, and
remuneration packages that reflect a fair reward for the contributions of senior executive leaders and key
management personnel across different portfolios of the business.
The persistent gender pay gap in Australia remains an issue of concern, and one that needs to be addressed
to ensure that the contributions of all employees are recognised and rewarded, and that Australian
businesses capitalise on the full potential of its workforce.
The findings in this report offer some encouragement that Australian businesses are taking the issue of gender
pay equity seriously, with far more seeking to measure pay differences and review remuneration policies and
processes throughout their organisations.
But measurement alone is not enough to break the inertia.
What this report proves most is that Australian companies need not only to commit to pay audits to address
potential gender bias in remuneration policies, but to follow through with actions around such policies to
make a real difference to pay equity outcomes.
DISCUSSION AND SUMMARY
57BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
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GLOSSARY
AND
TECHNICAL
NOTES
GLOSSARY AND TECHNICAL NOTES
About the WGEA Gender Equality Data Collection
This report uses the 2013-14, 2014-15, 2015-16 and 2016-17 WGEA Gender Equality datasets, which are
a unique data collection within Australia. The dataset came to existence through the introduction of the
Workplace Gender Equality Act 2012, which was legislated to promote and improve gender equality in
remuneration and employment within Australian workplaces. The Act requires relevant4 employers to report
annually against a number of Gender Equality indicators. The dataset is effectively a Census of all private
businesses that have 100 or more employees and can be considered population level data. The first reporting
year of the WGEA data was 2013-14.
The 2016-17 WGEA Gender Equality dataset is based on 4,621 reports submitted on behalf of more than
11,000 employers in accordance with the Act for reporting period 1 April 2016 to 31 March 2017. The dataset
captures more than 4 million employees – which equates to approximately 40% of all employees in Australia.
The WGEA Gender Equality data collection does not cover public sector organisations, and is therefore likely
to demonstrate different patterns because of this, particularly when assessing the characteristics of these
organisations within industry groupings that have a large public sector presence. It also does not cover small
businesses and a significant proportion of medium sized businesses that have less than 100 employees.
Measurement of Pay
Two principal measurements of remuneration are captured within the WGEA data, with organisations
reporting both the average ‘base’ salary and ‘total’ remuneration each employee receives.
Base salary is considered to be the annual salary, including salary sacrificed items, but excluding allowances,
superannuation and any other additional payments. Total remuneration includes base salary plus any
additional benefits whether payable directly or indirectly, whether in cash or in a form other than cash.
Includes among other things, bonus payments (including performance pay), superannuation, discretionary
pay, other allowances, and other (for example share allocations). Overtime is included as the actual overtime
amount paid.
Part-time and casual remuneration data collected within the WGEA Workplace profile dataset is based upon
a full-time equivalent (FTE) annualised value that is estimated by each reporting organisation. A calculator is
provided to organisations as a support tool to convert part-time wages and salaries to annual FTE values.
Measurement of the Gender pay gap
The gender pay gap measures the amount by which women’s salaries fall below or exceed men’s salaries in
percentage terms. Specifically, it is measured as:
If the average gender pay gap in a particular sector is positive, it indicates that women’s salaries are on
average lower than men’s in the sector. On the other hand, if the average gender pay gap is negative, it
indicates that women’s salaries exceed mens’ on average.
4 See Definitions for further information.
Gender pay gap = 1 -
Female salary
x 100
Male salary
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Regression Analysis
Regression is a statistical approach that captures multiple associations between explanatory factors and an
outcome of key interest (in our case, gender pay gaps).The main benefit of regression methods is that one
can isolate the ‘marginal’ impact of specific factors on an outcome of interest, having ‘controlled’ for other
coincidental factors that may also have an influence on the outcome. A brief description of the benefits,
limitations and assumptions for this modelling method is provided in the Glossary section of this report.
There may be other coincidental associations and drivers of gender pay gaps that cause such patterns to
emerge. For example, there may be systematic differences in the characteristics of organisations that initiate
actions to reduce gender pay gaps, compared with those that don’t. It is important that these additional
characteristics are accounted for when seeking to capture the impact of pay actions on gender pay outcomes.
Otherwise, the attribution of a change in gender pay gaps to a pay action may in reality be caused by some
other firm characteristic.
Definitions
Gender Dominance
Male-dominated organisations are classified as those where 60% or more of the workforce are men, female-
dominated organisations are those were 60% or more of employees are women and mixed organisations
otherwise.
Relevant Employer
A relevant employer is a non-public sector employer with 100 or more employees in Australia.
Base Salary
The annual salary, including salary sacrificed items, but excluding allowances, superannuation and any other
additional payments.
Total Remuneration
Includes base salary plus any additional benefits whether payable directly or indirectly, whether in cash
or in a form other than cash. Includes among other things, bonus payments (including performance pay),
superannuation, discretionary pay, other allowances, and other (for example share allocations). Overtime is
included as actual overtime amount paid.
Part-time Employees
Employees who are engaged to work a minimum number of hours per week, that is, less than what
constitutes full-time hours in a specific reporting organisation. These are reasonably predictable hours with a
guaranteed number of hours of work.
Full-time Employees
Employees who are engaged to work a minimum number of hours per week defined as full-time by a specific
reporting organisation. Hours are reasonably predictable with a guaranteed number of hours of work per
week. Please refer to what constitutes full-time hours in your specific organisation, for example , 38 or
40 hours per week.
GLOSSARY AND TECHNICAL NOTES
61BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Casual Employees
An employee working on an irregular and unsystematic schedule, who has little or no expectation of the
continuation of work or guaranteed income, and who has the ability to accept and reject work as they see fit.
Occupations
Within the WGEA Gender Equality data collection, information about both managerial and non-managerial
occupations is collected and allows for comparisons of the representation of men and women among
different occupation levels and the remuneration of each within these levels.
Among the managerial occupations, five hierarchical sub-categories exist. These categories range from CEO
(highest) to other managers (lowest), with progression to CEO denoting a higher level of responsibility and
expected remuneration.
The non-managerial classifications primarily consist of the Australian and New Zealand Standard
Classification of Occupations (ANZSCO), which is also a skill-based classification, used to classify all
occupations and jobs in the Australian and New Zealand labour markets. The non-managerial occupation
scale is also hierarchical, ranging from professionals to labourers and general reflects a greater level of skill
and training the higher the occupation level.
Managers
Managers comprise of all occupations from Other Manager to key management personnel.
Non-managers
Non-managers comprise occupations listed from labourers to professionals.
CEO (or equivalent)
The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) (or equivalent, however named) is the highest ranking corporate officer
(executive) or an administrator in charge of management of an organisation. The CEO (or equivalent) is
reported on separately to other key management personnel. Examples of the CEO could (depending upon the
nature of the organisation) also be the managing director, general manager, managing partner, principal or
vice chancellor.
Key management personnel (KMP)
Have authority and responsibility for planning, directing and controlling the activities of the entity, directly or
indirectly, including any director (whether executive or otherwise) of that entity, in accordance with Australian
Accounting Standards Board AASB124.
The KMP is a manager who represents at least one of the major functions of the organisation and participates
in organisation-wide decisions with the CEO.
Other executives/general managers
An ‘other executive/general manager’ holds primary responsibility for the equivalent of a department or a
business unit. In a large organisation, this manager might not participate in organisation-wide decisions with
the CEO.
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Senior managers
‘Senior managers’ are charged with one or more defined functions, departments or outcomes. They are more
likely to be involved in a balance of strategic and operational aspects of management. Some decision making
at this level would require approval from either of the two management levels above it. ‘Senior managers’ are
responsible for resourcing, a budget and assets (capital expenditure).
Other managers
‘Other managers’ plan, organise, direct, control and coordinate an operational function. They usually oversee
day to day operations, working within and enforcing defined company parameters.
An ‘other manager’ is accountable for a defined business outcome which usually involves the management
of resources that also includes time management, coordination of different functions or people, financial
resources, and other assets (for example facilities or IT infrastructure). Line managers would be included in
this category.
Professionals
Perform analytical, conceptual and creative tasks through the application of theoretical knowledge and
experience in the fields of the arts, media, business, design, engineering, the physical and life sciences,
transport, education, health, information and communication technology, the law, social sciences and social
welfare.
Technicians and trades employees
Perform a variety of skilled tasks, applying broad or in-depth technical, trade or industry specific knowledge,
often in support of scientific, engineering, building and manufacturing activities.
Community and personal service employees
Assist health professionals in the provision of patient care, provide information and support on a range of
social welfare matters, and provide other services in the areas of aged care and childcare, education support,
hospitality, defence, policing and emergency services, security, travel and tourism, fitness, sports and
personal services.
Clerical and administrative employees
Provide support to managers, professionals and organisations by organising, storing, manipulating and
retrieving information.
Sales employees
Sell goods, services and property, and provide sales support in areas such as operating cash registers and
displaying and demonstrating goods.
Machinery operators and drivers
Operate machines, plant, vehicles and other equipment to perform a range of agricultural, manufacturing and
construction functions, and move materials.
GLOSSARY AND TECHNICAL NOTES
63BCEC | WGEA GENDER EQUITY SERIES
Labourers
Perform a variety of routine and repetitive physical tasks using hand and power tools, and machines either
as an individual or as part of a team assisting more skilled workers such as Trades Workers, and Machinery
Operators and Drivers.
Other
Employees whose work is not defined by the above categories.
Graduate
Any person employed in a formal graduate program. Someone who has graduated from a tertiary institution
but is NOT part of a formal graduate program, is not to be included in this category.
Apprentice
Any person employed by an employer as an apprentice. A trainee is not considered an apprentice so should
not be included in this category.
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REFERENCES
REFERENCES
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
INSIDE AUSTRALIA’S GENDER PAY GAP
ABS (2018) Australian Bureau of Statistics Labour Force, Australia, Jan 2018. ABS Cat
Cassells R, Duncan A and Kiely D (2017), BCEC Quarterly Economic Commentary, Issue #1, Bankwest Curtin
Economics Centre, December 2017
Cassells R, Duncan A and Ong R (2017), ‘Gender Equity Insights 2017: Inside Australia’s Gender Pay Gap,
BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Series, Issue #2, March 2017
Cassells R, Duncan A and Tarverdi Y (2017), ‘BCEC Labour Market Update: October 2017’
Cassells R, Duncan A, and Ong R (2016), ‘Gender Equity Insights 2016: Inside Australia’s Gender Pay Gap’,
BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Series, Issue #1, March 2016
Cassells R, Gong, H and Duncan A (2011), Race against time: How Australians spend their time.
Income and Wealth Report, Issue 30, November, Sydney, AMP
WGEA (2017) Gender Pay Gap Statistics, Sydney, September
Authorship
This report was written by: Rebecca Cassells and Alan Duncan from the Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre at
the Curtin Business School.
It can be cited as: Cassells R and Duncan A (2018), ‘Gender Equity Insights 2018: Inside Australia’s Gender Pay
Gap', BCEC|WGEA Gender Equity Series, Issue #3, March 2018.
ISBN: 978-1-925083-78-1
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank WGEA staff for ongoing advice around the WGEA Gender Equality data
collection.
This paper uses de-identified data from the Workplace Gender Equality Agency’s compliance reporting and
benchmarking dataset. The findings and views reported in this paper are those of the authors and should not
be attributed to the Workplace Gender Equality Agency.
66
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APPENDIX
TABLE A1
Number employees by industry, employment status and gender, 2017
Industry Men Women
Full-time Part-time Casual Full-time Part-time Casual Total
Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing 10,288 297 6,896 3,908 730 5,392 27,511
Mining 110,274 876 3,117 19,040 2,283 622 136,212
Manufacturing 228,237 4,276 15,789 67,326 11,759 10,092 337,479
Electricity, Gas, Water and Waste Services 28,928 361 2,589 8,376 1,648 328 42,230
Construction 89,049 1,527 9,396 15,444 2,933 2,108 120,457
Wholesale Trade 63,603 2,415 6,307 27,504 7,266 8,563 115,658
Retail Trade 116,524 74,273 86,951 98,052 147,406 141,096 664,302
Accommodation and Food Services 28,146 20,558 47,416 23,891 27,551 54,596 202,158
Transport, Postal and Warehousing 111,454 10,453 21,505 33,558 10,823 7,187 194,980
Information Media and Telecommunications 68,434 3,685 6,969 34,069 8,519 6,819 128,495
Financial and Insurance Services 113,980 5,064 1,602 106,782 40,536 3,312 271,276
Rental, Hiring and Real Estate Services 19,723 502 3,542 12,565 2,542 2,780 41,654
Professional, Scientific and Technical Services 145,433 3,991 16,313 76,058 18,884 13,962 274,641
Administrative and Support Services 44,888 17,091 86,828 35,227 26,395 57,135 267,564
Public Administration and Safety 12,991 1,997 2,885 2,887 1,004 927 22,691
Education and Training 82,693 14,272 51,656 106,767 69,250 81,919 406,557
Health Care and Social Assistance 48,347 45,842 29,460 115,867 269,155 114,613 623,284
Arts and Recreation Services 19,351 6,412 18,147 11,211 8,487 23,917 87,525
Other Services 26,504 2,799 6,519 14,748 6,383 4,585 61,538
Total 1,368,847 216,691 423,887 813,280 663,554 539,953 4,026,212
GENDER EQUITY INSIGHTS 2018:
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68
Bankwest Curtin Economics Centre (BCEC)
Level 4, Building 408, Curtin University
GPO Box U1987, Perth WA 6845
Tel: +61 8 9266 2873
Workplace Gender Equality Agency (WGEA)
7, 309 Kent Street, Sydney NSW 2000
Tel: +61 2 9432 7000
BCEC | WGEA Gender Equity Series
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