客户管理顾客管理企业的目的是
要创造顾客
Precase
福特的 T型车
20世纪初，汽车是由技术工人手工打造而成的，成本较高，因而价格难
以下降，汽车成了地位的象征，拥有汽车只是少数人的特权。福特的贡献在于
他把汽车变成了普通商品。美国福特汽车公司是 1903年由亨利·福特与詹姆
斯·卡曾斯、道奇兄弟等创办，由福特任总经理。1903年到 1908年之间，亨
利.福特和他的工程师们研制了 19款不同的汽车，并按字母顺序将它们命名为
A型车到 S型车，其中有一些只是试验性车型，从未向公众推出。有的有两个
或四个气缸，甚至六个气缸；有的使用链式传动装置，有的则是轮式传动装置。
这些汽车最终成了 T型车的技术基础。T型车于 1908年 10月 1日推出，很快
就令千百万美国人着迷。第一年，T型车的产量达到 10660辆，创下了汽车行
业的纪录。1912年福特公司聘用詹姆斯·库兹恩任总经理。库兹恩上任后实施
了三项决策。一是对“T型车”做出降价的决定，即 1910年定的售价 950美
元降到 850美元以下；二是按每辆“T型车”850美元售价的目标，着手改革
公司内部的生产线，在占地面积为 278英亩的新厂中首先采用现代化的大规模
装配作业线，小时出一辆“T型车”，大幅度地降低成本；三是在全世界
设置 7000多家代销商，广设销售网点。这三项决策的成功，使“T型车”冲
向全世界，市场占有率占美国汽车行业之首。
福特 T型车的问世具有划时代的意义，它使得大多数的普通人们都可以拥
有属于自己的汽车，人们的旅行从马车时代一下子跨越到了机器时代，无论是
旅行的距离还是旅行的舒适程度都比以前有了巨大的进步。T型车不仅仅只是
一个钢铁、橡胶、木材和玻璃的组合体，与同期诞生的其它事物相比，它更可
以称得上是一种传奇，是一种代表了北美自由开放的社会文化。在德国大众公
司的“甲克虫”诞生之前，福特 T型车可以说是真正意义上的“大众车”。鉴
于此，1999年 12月 18日晚 T型车被国际世纪车评选委员会授予迄今为止最
伟大的汽车奖项－“世纪车”的桂冠，以表彰它对全世界的影响和贡献，T型
车的发明者亨利·福特先生也因为他对世界汽车工业和人类个人交通的伟大贡
献被选为“世纪汽车企业家”。
1919年，亨利·福特独占福特公司，库兹恩被解雇，福特自任总经理。福
特一方面采用低价策略，1924年，每辆“T型车”售价已降到 240美元，1926
年福特车产量已占美国汽车产量的 1／2；另一方面又提出“不管顾客需要什
么，我的车都是黑的”，实行以产定销的策略，以“黑色车"来作为福特汽车公
司的象征。结果，“T型车”在竞争中日益失利，1927年 5月终于停产。1928
年，福特汽车公司的市场占有率被通用汽车公司超过，退居第二位。
美国通用汽车公司于 1908年成立，由杜邦财团控制。1928年以前，它是
市场占有率远远低于福特汽车公司的一个弱手。1921年斯隆就职于通用汽车
公司，针对当时通用汽车公司松散的权力分散状况写了《组织研究》一文，提
出了“集中决策控制下的分散作业”，使集权和分权得到很好平衡。1923年，
斯隆任通用汽车公司总经理，改革了经营组织，使公司高层领导人抓经营、抓
战略性决策，日常的管理工作由事业部去完成。同时，提出“汽车形式多样化”
的经营方针，以满足各阶层消费者的需要。1923年市场占有率仅 12%，远远低
于福特汽车公司；1928年市场占有率达到 30%以上，超过福特汽车公司，1956
年市场占有率达 53%，成为美国最大的汽车公司。
问题思考：
(1)“T型车”最初的成功靠的是什么？又是什么原因导致了其退居二位？结合案例
谈谈营销理念对企业经营成败的重要作用。
(2)营销理念的类型有哪些？现代企业应树立怎样的营销理念？
The development of marketing
Market
What’s Market?
Originally the term market stood for the place where buyers
and sellers gathered to exchange their goods. Economists use the
term to refer to a collection of buyers and sellers who transact in
a particular product class. In the marketing terms, a market can be
defined as the set of all actual and potential buyers of a product
or service. This definition suggests that a market is the total
value and/or volume of products that satisfy the same customer
need.
Knowledges
从市场的本义看，市场是商品交换的场所。
从市场的性质看，市场是一切商品交换活动和交换关系的总和。
从市场营销学的角度看，市场是一种商品和劳务的所有现实的和潜在
的消费者需求的总和。
For example, if the customer need is “eat breakfast”, then
the relevant market could be defined as the “Breakfast Food
Market”. Many products would be relevant to measuring and
analyzing such a market:
- Breakfast Cereals
- Nutrition Bars
- Porridge / Oats
- Speciality Breads (. croissants)
- Fast-food Outlets serving breakfast
Relevant Links
Chinese consumer goods market to rank second behind . by 2015
China will overtake Japan, Germany, Britain and Italy to become
the world's second biggest consumer goods market behind the United
States by 2015, according to the findings of a survey by Credit
Suisse, one of the world's leading investment banks. The
Swiss-based bank estimates that Chinese consumption will account
for percent of the total consumption among major economies in
2015, while the . consumption will account for percent.
(Source:
The component of market
The size of a market depends on the number of people who
exhibit the need, have resources to engage in exchange, and are
willing to exchange these resources for what they want. There are
two types of customers that engage in business exchanges. First
there are organizational buyers, who purchases goods and services
for business, government agencies, and other institutions, such as
hospitals and schools. Organizational buyers purchase goods and
services to run their own companies or to sell them to other
organizations or consumers. Second, there are ultimate consumers,
who use the goods and services purchased for a household. Figure
shows a simple marketing system.
(source:philip Kotler,Principles of Marketing, Fiwancial Times
Information
Communication
Products/services
Money
Industry
(a collection of
sellers)
Market
(a collection of
buyers)
Figure A simple marketing system
Prentice Hall,2002,)
Knowledges
市场的大小取决于人口、购买力和购买意向。
消费者可分为组织消费者和个人消费者两种类型。
消费者是买方，构成了市场，企业是卖方，构成了行业。
The classification of market
The company needs to study five types of customer markets
closely. Consumer markets consist of individuals and households
that buy goods and services for personal consumption. Business
markets buy goods and services for further processing or for use in
their production process, whereas reseller markets buy goods and
services to resell at a profit. Government markets are made up of
government agencies that buy goods and services to produce public
services or transfer the goods and services to others who need them.
Finally, international markets consist of these buyers in other
countries, including consumers, producers, resellers, and
governments. Each market type has special characteristics that call
for careful study by the seller.
Knowledges
消费者市场是指购买产品或服务用于个人和家庭消费的社会最终消费
者群体。
生产者市场是指购买或租赁产业用品以进行营利性生产的购买群体。
转卖市场是指那些采购商品再转卖以获利润的个人或组织，主要包括
批发商、零售商、经销商或代理商。
政府市场是指政府各级机关、各类社会团体及其他各种非盈利性机构
所组成的市场。其购买目的是为了保证这些非盈利性机构的正常运转。
国际市场是指由他国买者所构成的群体。
Marketing
What does the term marketing really mean?
Many people think of marketing only as advertising and selling.
Given the number of commercials on television, in magazines and
newspapers and all the signs and offers in and around the shops,
this is not surprising. However, advertising and selling are only
two of several marketing functions, and not necessarily the most
important ones. The most basic concept underlying marketing is that
of human needs. Marketing has become a key factor in the success of
businesses. Today’s companies face stiff competition and the
companies which can best satisfy customer needs are those which
will survive and make the largest profits.
There are many different definitions of marketing. Consider
some of the following alternative definitions:
“The all-embracing function that links the business with
customer needs and wants in order to get the right product to the
right place at the right time”
“The achievement of corporate goals through meeting and
exceeding customer needs better than the competition”
“The management process that identifies, anticipates and
supplies customer requirements efficiently and profitably”
“Marketing may be defined as a set of human activities
directed at facilitating and consummating exchanges”
Which definition is right? In short, they all are. Marketing
has two facets. First, it is a philosophy, and attitude, a
perspective, or a management orientation that stresses customer
satisfaction. Second, marketing is a set of activities used to
implement this philosophy. Marketing can thus be defined as any
human activity which is directed at satisfying needs and wants by
creating and exchanging goods and value with others.
Knowledges
市场营销可定义为通过创造产品与价值并与他人交换，旨在满足人们
需要的一切人类活动。
市场营销的核心概念是交换。
市场营销的核心是满足顾客需要。
The main concepts of marketing
The most basic concept underlying marketing is that of human
needs. Human needs are states of felt deprivation. They include
basic physical needs for food, clothing, warmth, and safety; social
needs for belonging and affection; and individual needs for
knowledge and self-expression. These needs were not created by
marketers; they are a basic part of the human makeup. Wants are the
form human needs take as they are shaped by culture and individual
personality, it include specific goods and services to satisfy
needs, as well as additional goods and services that go beyond
survival. When backed by buying power, wants become demands. Given
their wants and resources, people demand products with benefits
that add up to the most value and satisfaction.
Customer value is the difference between the values the
customer gains from owning and using a product and the costs of
obtaining the product. Customers form expectations about the value
of various marketing offers and buy accordingly. How do buyers form
their expectations? Customer expectations are based on past buying
experiences, the opinions of friends, and marketer and competitor
information and promises. Customer satisfaction is the feeling that
a product has met or exceeded the customer’s expectations.
Customer satisfaction is a key influence on future buying behavior.
Satisfied customers buy again and tell others about their good
experiences. Dissatisfied customers often switch to competitors and
disparage the product to others. Customer value and customer
satisfaction are key building blocks for developing and managing
customer relationships.
Relevant Links
什么叫顾客的需要？
所谓顾客的需要(市场的需要)：
①首先是我们的产品能不能满足顾客的需要。
产品包括服务。世界有 10亿穆斯林教徒，日本研制生产了“穆斯林表”，
能换算 125个国家与麦加圣地的时间变换。这就是满足顾客的需要。
②第二就是产品的价格能不能被顾客所接受。
首先要了解顾客的支付意愿，进而企业要进行成本控制与成本核算，以满
足这个定价需要。现在要求的是事前的成本控制，而不是事后的成本核算。只
有这样，才能满足顾客的需要。这就需要我们去悉心研究顾客可以接受的价格。
顾客关心的是价格，而不是你的成本。
③在顾客需要的时候能不能把产品及时投放市场。
消费品很多都是季节性的，生产资料也有个交货期问题。时间对于企业来
讲就是机会，机不可失，失不再来。要抓住时机，满足顾客需要。
④在顾客需要时能不能把产品送到顾客手里。
顾客的需要是有地点的。
以上阐述的产品、价格、时间、地点，就是顾客需要四因素。我们现在所
处的时代，顾客需求是多种多样的，个性化要求突出。更重要的是，这个需要
是动态的，处在经常不断的变化之中。
什么是顾客价值？
顾客价值是顾客对其所得和所失的权衡，换句话说就是，顾客价值是由企
业创造，但是却是由企业与顾客互动而最终实现的，顾客价值的实现过程是一
种动态平衡的过程。在顾客价值实现过程中，企业利益与顾客利益得到完美的
统一：顾客的需求得到满足，企业得以生存发展。
科特勒在《营销管理》一书中提出了几个不同的价值概念。他认为,“顾
客让渡价值（customer delivered value）是指总顾客价值与总顾客成本之差。
总顾客价值(total customer value)就是顾客期望从某一特定产品或服务中
获得的一组利益。而总顾客成本(total customer cost)是在评估、获得和使
用该产品或服务时引起的顾客的预计费用。”其中,总顾客价值包括了产品价值、
服务价值、人员价值和形象价值四个方面;总顾客成本则包括了货币价值、时
间成本、精力成本和体力成本等四个方面。
产品价值
服务价值
人员价值
形象价值
货币价格
时间成本
精力成本
体力成本
总顾客成本
总顾客价值
顾客让渡价值
Figure 顾客让渡价值的决定因素
Marketing consists of individual and organizational activities
that facilitate and expedite satisfying exchange relationships in a
dynamic environment through the creation, distribution, promotion
and pricing of goods, services and ideas. Exchange is the key term
in the definition of marketing. It means that people give up
something to receive something they would rather have. For an
exchange to take place, five conditions must exist: there must be
at least two parties. Each party must have something that might be
of value to the other party. Each party must be able to communicate
with the other party and deliver the goods or services sought by
the other trading party. Each party must be free to accept or
reject the exchange offer. Each party must want to deal with the
other party.
Knowledges
交换的发生至少要具备五个条件：
一是至少要有两方以上参与；
每一方都有对方认为有价值的东西；
每一方都能进行信息交流和交换物品的传递；
交换是自愿的；
每一方都有交换的意愿。
《英雄》辉煌的纪录
2004年《英雄》创造了有史以来中国电影市场最成功的票房，上市 20
天就创下了超过 2亿元的票房，而本年度风靡全球的《哈利·波特》，在中国创
下的票房仅为 6300万元。让《英雄》成功的，不是由于电影的精彩，而是由
于营销策划、市场推广的创新。《英雄》组成了阵容强大的明星剧组，早在 2001
年初，新画面公司就开始借助团队的明星效应，持续制造新闻。在媒体的支持
下，这些“新闻广告”高强度持续进行了两年时间，终于让大量中国人按捺不
住，走进影院观看这个中国有史以来营销最成功的电影。
How Do Consumers Benefit?
Marketing creates utility, the benefits or customer value
received by users of the product. This utility is the result of the
marketing exchange process. There are four different utilities:
form, place, time, and possession. The production of the good or
service constitutes form utility. Place utility means having the
offering available where consumers need it, whereas time utility
means having it available when needed. Possession utility is the
value of making an item easy to purchase through the provision of
credit cards or financial arrangements. Marketing creates its
utilities by bridging space(space utility) and hours(time
utility)to provide products(form utility) for consumers to own and
use (possession utility).
Reading around
Marketing is changing to meet the changing world. Marketing
remains the business activity that identifies an organization’s
customer needs and wants. Marketing determines which target markets
a company can serve best, and marketing helps the design of
appropriate products, services and programmes to serve these
markets. However, marketing is much more than an isolated business
function; it is a philosophy that guides the entire organization.
The goal of marketing is to create customer satisfaction profitably
by building valued relationships with customers. Marketers cannot
accomplish this goal by themselves. They must work closely with
other people in their company and with other organizations in their
value chain, to provide superior value to customers. Thus marketing
calls upon everyone in the organization to “think customer” and
to do all that they can to help create and deliver superior
customer value and satisfaction. As professor Stephen Burnett says,
‘In a truly great marketing organization, you can’t tell who’s
in the marketing department. Everyone in the organization has to
make decisions based on the impact on the consumer.’
Marketing Management
他她水：赢在“男女有别”
在饮料行业，口味、成分、年龄、功能等纵向产品细分标准早已被众厂家
用滥，从成人饮料到儿童饮料，从功能饮料到情绪饮料，想在这些细分市场中
出奇已经不可能，但从没有人把饮料的消费人群做一个二元切割，而在这个极
度追求个性和差异化的时代，为了适应男女个性、生活习惯、身体健康的需求，
就贴上男女标签。“我们能否‘横’切市场一刀，把我们的饮料也分出男女呢？”
周子琰说。2004年 3月，“他＋她－营养水”正式推向市场，其独特的创意
立刻成为焦点，好评如潮，一周内产品订货量超过 2亿元，并在 3个月内创下
了 6亿元的订货量新高。
名称的威力
"他她水"名称的诞生过程非常艰难。“男士饮料、女士饮料”、“帅哥饮
料、美女饮料”……站在第三者的立场，什么东西能够简单直接地概括男女，
又不显得俗气呢？ “他”、“她”是两个名字，在注册产品名时怎么办？两者
如何联系？最后从 50个名字中确定了“他＋、她－”这两个品牌名称。
“他、她”，为目标顾客群--心理年龄在 18～35岁的消费者留下了充分的
联想余地，避免因名称的某种特质而拒绝了另一类人群；产品本身是一种营养
素水，"＋"和"-"既体现了产品"男加体力女减体重"的特质，又暗合产品的性
别属性，使男女要喝不同的营养素水的产品诉求得到很好的体现，含有肌醇、
牛磺酸，能为男人及时补充活力的"他+"和含有芦荟和膳食纤维，能帮助女人
减肥，保持秀美靓丽的"她-"共同构成了"他她营养素水"概念。在对产品名称
感到新鲜而产生首次尝试后，又给了消费者重复消费的理由，借功能性饮料奠
定的市场教育基础，进一步将消费者保健的愿望落到实处。
贩卖浪漫
他她水个性化的品牌创意，打动了那些好奇心理很强，愿意做时尚弄潮儿，
同时特别具有浪漫气息的消费者。
既然分出了男女，就要把这种感觉做到极致。在推广和宣传上，"他她水"
营销团队的手法更是令人眼花缭乱，央视广告、形象代言人、音乐营销、情缘
营销，以体验营销为核心，最终都聚焦在浪漫上。
他她饮品公司已经投资制作了一系列“她”、 “他”原创歌曲，比如《爱
她就给他》、《有我就有她》、《男女关系》、《ＩＤ密码》等。“我还希望用这些
歌曲去打歌曲榜，从而使消费者唱着他她、喝着他她，享受他她世界的温馨甜
美，使‘他她水’最终成为可以流淌出音乐的饮料”，周子琰这样规划。
网络是青年男女接触最多，最乐于接受的传播媒体。在 2004年 6月 9日
的形象代言人签约仪式上，她加他饮品公司启动了“众里寻他（她），凭水相
逢”活动，这是一种类似“网友见面”的、颇具娱乐色彩和悬念的情缘速配活
动，消费者只要把瓶子上的编码用短信发送至指定地址，就有机会和同一编码
的异性消费者结识。活动期间，每天收到的短信量不低于 10万条。2004年 8
月 1日，金山与他她水在全国各主要城市开始了大型暑期推广战略，借“剑侠
情缘”这款网游让“他+她-”进入网吧的饮料销售渠道。此外，“他她水”还
策划了如“电视剧营销”、“他她舞”等创新传播手段。
在产品包装设计上，“他她水”从用色、构图、版式等各个方面，都打上
了性别的鲜明印记。“她”饮料用桃红，显得非常有女人味，带有一丝丝浪漫
与妩媚。“他”饮料采用蓝色基调，表现男性的稳重和阳刚之气，瓶身带一点
流线形，透出优雅的气质。男女两个瓶子摆在一起，可以形成两张青春、靓丽
面孔的对望，一张男子俯视的脸和一张女子仰视的脸给人以相互依偎、相依相
伴的感觉，恰似深情相望的一对情侣，让消费者产生充分的联想，而这种摆放
方式不仅第一时间吸引消费眼球，而且许多人，尤其是年轻人往往不忍让另一
瓶水落单。
2004年的中国饮料市场，由于他她水的出现，凭添了一丝丝浪漫与新意。
（摘自 2004年度营销业界十大精典案例，兰茂勋）
What’s Marketing management
We define marketing management as the art and science of
choosing target markets and building profitable relationships with
them. This involves getting, keeping, and growing customers through
creating, delivering, and communicating superior customer value.
Thus, marketing management involves what companies do and should do
to deliver customer value and achieve objective.
Knowledges
营销管理是选择目标市场并与其建立获利关系的科学和艺术。
营销管理的手段是创造、传递与交流更好的顾客价值。
营销管理的实质是需求管理（demand management）。
The process of Marketing management
In general, marketing management include developing marketing
plans and strategies and executing marketing activities to
implement and control them. Figure offers an overview of the
marketing management process.
Developing marketing plans and strategies
Marketing plans are documents created by organizations to
record the results and conclusions of environmental analyses and to
detail marketing strategies and their intended results. The
marketing strategy portion of plans includes statements of
marketing objectives, analyses of customers and markets, and
suggested marketing mixes to achieve objectives. Marketing mixes
are combinations of strategic tools used to create value for
customers and achieve organizational goals. Marketing plans should
also include budgets, forecasted sales and profits, and any other
objectives that can be used to evaluate success or failure.
Selecting target markets
This process begins with a market opportunity analysis (MOA),
which describes and estimates the size and sales potential of
market segments that are of interest to the firm. In addition, and
assessment of key competitors in these market segments is performed.
After the market segments are described, one or more may be
targeted by the firm. A target markets consists of a set of buyers
who share common needs or characteristics that the company decides
to serve. The three strategies for selecting target markets are
appealing to the entire market with one marketing mix,
concentrating on one segment, or appealing to multiple market
segments using multiple marketing mixes.
Developing marketing mixes
Marketing mix is a combination of strategic tools used to
create value for customers and achieve organizational objectives.
There are four primary tools or elements in a marketing mix:
product, price, place (distribution), and promotion (communication).
These elements are sometimes called “four P’s”. The product
element is concerned with what marketers offer to customers. The
price element concerns the amount of money or other resources
marketers ask for their offerings. The place element concerns how
products and services are delivered to markets to make them
available for exchanges. The promotion element concerns how
marketers inform, persuade, and remind customers about products and
services.
Implementing and controlling marketing activities
Planning good strategies is only a start toward successful
marketing. A brilliant marketing strategy counts for little if the
company fails to implement it properly. Marketing implementation is
the process that turns marketing plans into marketing actions in
order to accomplish strategic marketing objectives. Implementation
involves day to day, month to month activities that effectively put
the marketing plan to work. Whereas marketing planning addresses
the what and why of marketing activities, implementation addresses
the who, where, when, and how. Marketing control involves
evaluating the results of marketing strategies and plans and taking
corrective action to ensure that objectives are attained.
Knowledges
营销管理涉及到制定营销计划和战略、选择目标市场、实施和控制营
销活动。
目标市场是企业决定要进入或占领的市场。
营销组合涉及到产品、价格、分销和促销四个可控制变量。
Demand management
Some people think of marketing management as finding enough
customers for the company’s current output. But this view is too
limited. Marketing management is not concerned with serving all
customers in every way. Instead, marketers want to serve selected
customers that they can serve well and profitably.
The organization has a desired level of demand for its products.
At any point in time, there may be no demand, adequate demand,
irregular demand, or too much demand. Marketing management must
find ways to deal with these different demand states. It may be
concerned not only with finding and increasing demand but also with
changing or even reducing it. Power companies sometimes have
trouble meeting demand during peak usage periods. In these and
other cases of excess demand, demarketing may be required to reduce
the number of customers or to shift their demand temporarily or
permanently. Thus, marketing management seeks to affect the types
of customers served and the level, timing, and nature of their
demand in a way that helps the organization achieve its objectives.
Simply put, marketing management is customer management and demand
management.
Knowledges
营销管理简而言之就是消费者管理和需求管理，即调节市场需求的水平、
时间和特性，以达到营销者的预期目标。需求管理包括八种情况（见表 1-1）：
表 1-1 需求管理
需求状况 需求管理
负需求 改进、扭转、转换性营销 (conversional
marketing)
无需求 刺激、启发、激发性营销 (stimulating
marketing)
潜在需求 创 造 、 开 发 性 营 销 (developmental
marketing)
波动需求 协调、配合、同步性营销(synchro-marketing)
衰减需求 恢复、再生性营销即再营销(remarketing)
饱和需求 满 足 、 维 持 性 营 销 (maintenance
marketing)
超饱和需求 抑制、降低性营销(de-marketing)
不健康需求 替 代 、 抵 制 性 营 销 ， 反 营 销
(counter-marketing)
Reading around
Global Connections
Today, almost every company, large or small, is touched in some
way by global competition. A neighborhood florist buys its flower
from Mexican nurseries, while a large . electronics manufacturer
competes in its home markets with giant Japanese rivals. A
fledgling Internet retailer that finds itself receiving orders from
all over the world at the same time that an American consumer-goods
producer introduces new products into emerging markets abroad.
American firms have been challenged at home by the skillful
marketing of European and Asian multinationals. Companies such as
Toyota, Siemens, Nestlé, Sony, and Samsung have often outperformed
their . competitors in American markets. Similarly, .
companies in a wide range of industries have found new
opportunities abroad. Coca-cola, General Motors, ExxonMobi, IBM,
General Electric, Dupont, Motorola, and dozens of other American
companies have developed truly global operations, making and
selling their products worldwide. Even MTV has joined the elite of
global brands, delivering localized versions of its pulse-thumping
fare to teens in 140 countries around the globe.
Today, companies are not only trying to sell more of their
locally produced goods in international markets, they also are
buying more supplies and components abroad. Thus, managers in
countries around the world are increasing taking a global, not just
local, view of the company’s industry, competitors, and
opportunities. They are asking: What is global marketing? How does
it differ from domestic marketing? How do global competitors and
forces affect our business? To what extent should we “go global”?
Many companies are forming strategic alliances with foreign
companies, even competitors, who serve as suppliers or marketing
partners. Winning companies in new century may well be those that
have built the best global networks.
Marketing Management Philosophies
We describe marketing management as carrying out tasks to
achieve desired exchanges with target markets. What philosophy
should guide these marketing efforts? What weight should be given
to the interests of the organization, customers and society? Very
often these interests conflict. Invariably, the organization’s
marketing management philosophy influences the way it approaches
its buyers.
These are five alternative concepts under which organizations
conduct their marketing activities: the production, product,
selling, marketing and societal marketing concepts.
Production Concept
Production concept is a philosophy that consumers will favor
products that are available and highly affordable, and that
management should therefore focus on improving production and
distribution efficiency. This concept is one of the oldest
philosophies. It focuses on the internal capabilities of the firm
rather than on the desires and needs of the marketplace. It is
assumed that if products are better, customers will buy them.
There is nothing wrong with assessing a firm’s capabilities;
in fact, such assessments are major considerations in strategic
marketing planning. A production orientation can lead to marketing
myopia because it does not consider whether the goods and services
that the firm produces most efficiently also meet the needs of the
marketplace. But the production concept is a useful philosophy in
two types of situation. The first occurs when the demand for a
product exceeds the supply. Here, management should look for ways
to increase production. The second situation occurs when the
product’s cost is too high and improved productivity is needed to
bring it down.
The Model T of the Ford Motor Company
In the early years of the Ford Motor Company, Henry Ford’s
whole philosophy was to perfect the production of the Model T so
that its cost could be reduced and more people could afford it. He
joked about offering people a car of any color as long as it was
black. The company won a big share of the automobile market with
this philosophy. However, companies operating under a production
philosophy run a big risk of focusing too narrowly on their own
operations. After some time, Ford’s strategy failed. Although its
cars were own operations, the company lost sight of something else
that its customers wanted-namely, attractive, affordable vehicles.
The gap left by Ford gave rise to new market opportunities which
rival General Motors was quick to exploit.
Knowledges
生产观念是一种最古老的企业经营思想。
生产观念认为消费者欢迎那些可买到的和买得起的产品。
生产观念是一种重生产、轻市场营销的企业经营思想。
生产观念是在卖方市场条件下产生的。
生产观念适用于以下两种情况：一是某种产品供不应求，因而顾客最
关心的是能否得到产品，企业只要提高产量就能获利；二是某种产品的生产成
本太高，产品价格是影响一部分消费者购买的原因，只要改进技术提高生产率
就能扩大市场而获利。
Product Concept
创新产品维生素水：脉动快速“卖动”
脉动是达能入主乐百氏之后的第一个成功作品。这种维生素饮料最早诞生
于新西兰和澳大利亚，含有多种 B族活性维生素及维生素 C，具有天然清新的
水果味,口感清爽，很受消费者的喜爱。脉动到达中国以后，也继承了国外的
佳绩。“脉动”3月底面市，4月份“非典”开始在全国蔓延，5月中旬在华北、
东北等地疫情达到了高峰，这时候消费者迫切地需要能增强免疫力的产品。保
健品、特别是维生素矿物质销量飞涨，以维生素水为诉求的“脉动”收益不小。
令人称道的是，脉动没有不负责任的借势营销，而是“不逾矩”，老实本分地
继续自己的营销计划。
Product concept holds that consumers will favor products that
offer the most quality, performance and features, and that the
organization should therefore devote its energy to making
continuous product improvements.
A product orientation leads to obsession with technology
because managers believe that technical superiority is the key to
business success. The product concept also can lead to “marketing
myopia”.
Knowledges
产品观念也是一种古老的企业经营思想。
产品观念认为消费者欢迎质量好的产品，企业应致力于改进技术，提
高产品质量。
产品观念会导致“市场营销近视”（Marketing Myopia）：在市场营
销管理工作中缺乏远见，只看到自己的产品质量好，看不到市场需要在变化，
结果必然把自己引入困境。
生产观念和产品观念都是以生产者为中心，�生产什么就卖什么，是
等客上门的经营观念。
Selling Concept
三株口服液---创造推销神话
1994年 8月 8日成立的山东三株集团有限公司，以三株口服液保健品起家，
当年实现销售收入 亿元，1996年实现销售收入 80亿元，上缴国家税金
亿元，巨额销售主要靠的是遍布城乡的十八万销售大军。1998年“常德事
件”发生，给三株集团带来了沉重的打击，1999年三株胜诉。目前，三株成
功地进行了经营机制的转轨，调整了组织机构和营销策略，加快了技术创新，
实现了由整顿向发展的战略转移。
Selling concept holds that consumers will not buy enough of the
organization’s products unless the organization undertakes a
large-scale selling and promotion effort.
Most firms practice the selling concept when they have
overcapacity. Their aim is to sell what they make rather than make
what the market wants. Such marketing carries high risks. It
focuses on creating sales transactions in the short term, rather
than on building long-term, profitable relationships with customers.
It assumers that they may forget their disappointment and buy it
again later. These are usually poor assumptions to make about
buyers. Most studies show that dissatisfied customers do not buy
again. Worse yet, while the average satisfied customer tells three
others about good experiences, the average dissatisfied customer
tells ten others of his or her bad experiences.
Knowledges
推销观念是以销售为中心的企业经营指导思想。
认为消费者一般不会大量购买某一组织的产品，除非企业采取大量的
市场营销措施。因此企业必须重视和加强推销和销售促进，千方百计（动用千
军万马，踏遍千山万水，历经千难万险，吃尽千辛万苦，走近千家万户，说尽
千言万语）地使消费者对企业的产品发生兴趣，以扩大销售，提高市场占有率，
取得更多利润。
推销观念是在“卖方市场”向“买方市场”过渡期间产生的。
其中心仍然是生产者，还是生产什么就卖什么。
Marketing Concept
以消费者需求为中心---无所不洗的海尔衣机
有一次，在海尔员工对山东的经销商进行调研的过程中，听山东的经销商
说过这样的话，我们这个地方的农民，有的时候叫我们去修洗衣机的时候，就
发现他洗衣机的下水管道被泥土堵塞，我们去问农民，农民说我们用这个洗衣
机洗地瓜。这件事情被反映上来之后，研发部门就提出，能不能生产一种洗衣
机能够洗地瓜。他们通过研发部门的研发、调整之后，就把洗衣机下面的下水
道上增加一个网，设计两个下水道，就能够既洗衣服又能洗地瓜。
龙虾深受消费者喜爱。但手工清洗龙虾费时又费力，增加了成本，针对这
一潜在的市场需求，2003年海尔洗衣机公司迅速推出了可以洗龙虾的“洗虾
机”，不但省时省力，且洗涤效果非常好，在前不久结束的合肥“龙虾节”引
发了难得一见的抢购热潮。
喝酥油茶是西藏社会千百年来的习惯，制作酥油茶的工具一直沿用一个长
型的圆筒，在最近的短短几年时间里，这个圆筒却基本变成了展览品。青岛海
尔集团研制开发的一种既可洗衣又可打酥油的高原型“小小神童”洗衣机在西
藏市场一上市，便受到消费者欢迎，从而开辟出自己独有的市场。这种洗衣机
3个小时打制的酥油，相当于一名藏族妇女三天的工作量。
海尔洗衣机公司在接到用户需求后，仅用了 24小时，就在已有的洗衣机
模块技术上，创新地推出了一款可洗荞麦皮枕头的洗衣机，受到用户的极大赞
誉，更成为继海尔洗地瓜机、打酥油机、洗龙虾机之后，在满足市场个性化需
求上的又一经典之作。
Marketing concept is the marketing management philosophy which
holds that achieving organizational goals depends on determining
the needs and wants of target markets and delivering the desired
satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors do.
Instead of a product-centered “make and sell” philosophy, the
marketing concept is a customer-centered “sense and respond”
philosophy. It is based on an understanding that a sale does not
depend on an aggressive sales force, but rather on a customer’s
decision to purchase a product. The marketing concept includes the
following: focusing on customer wants and needs so the organization
can distinguish its product(s) from competitors’ offerings;
integrating all the organization’s activities, including
production, to satisfy these wants; achieving long-term goals for
the organization by satisfying customer wants and needs legally and
responsibly. Figure contrasts the selling concept and the
marketing concept.
Knowledges
市场营销观念强调实现组织目标的关键在于正确确定目标顾客的需
要和欲望，并且要比竞争对手更有效地满足消费者的需求。
市场营销观念体现了以消费者需求为中心。
市场营销观念与推销观念的差异。推销观念是以企业的现有产品为中心，
以推销和销售促进等为手段，刺激销售，从而达到扩大销售，取得利润 r 目
的。而市场营销观念是以企业的目标顾客及其需要为中心，并且集中企业的一
切资源、力量，切实调查研究和了解目标顾客的需要，适当安排 4PS，而且要
比其竞争者更好地满足目标顾客的需要，采取这些手段来达到获取利润，实现
企业目标的目的。
(source:Gary Armstrong and philip Kotler,何志毅改编 Principles
of Marketing(营销学导论), 中国人民大学出版社,2006,)
Societal Marketing Concept
统一润滑油：多一些润滑、少一些摩擦
统一石化在伊拉克战争期间快速应对，在战争爆发后第一时间推出的广告
“多一点润滑、少一点摩擦”，巧妙结合产品、时机，在短期内让统一润滑油
吸引了大量受众的眼球，更是大大提升了统一石化的美誉度。
Societal marketing concept holds that the organization should
determine the needs, wants and interests of target markets and
deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently
than competitors in a way that maintains or improves the
consumer’s and society’s well-being. It states that an
organization exists not only to satisfy customer wants and needs
and to meet organizational objectives but also to preserve or
enhance individuals’ and society’s long-term best welfare. As
figure shows, the societal marketing concept calls on marketers
to balance three considerations in setting their marketing policies:
company profits, consumer wants, and society’s interests.
(source:philip Kotler,Principles of Marketing, Fiwancial Times
Prentice Hall,2002,)
Knowledges
社会市场营销观念强调组织要注重消费者和社会的长远利益。
社会市场营销观念认为，企业制订其市场营销政策时要全面兼顾三个
方面的利益，即公司利润、消费者的欲望和需要以及社会利益。
Relevant links
21世纪的营销观
1．生态营销观念（Ecological marketing concept）
生态营销观念是以市场需求和市场竞争为中心，以寻找和满足最能发挥企
业优势的市场需求，提高企业经营效益为重点的营销观念。生态营销观念认为，
市场需求多种多样，任何一个企业都不可能满足市场上的所有需求，而只能将
那些最能发挥企业优势的市场需求作为企业的营销方向，设法去满足它。因此，
企业在营销活动中，要把市场需求与企业优势有机结合起来。正如各种生物一
样，必须选择那些最能发挥自身机体功能的生态环境，作为自己生存和繁衍的
场所，才能更好地生存和发展，而不被淘汰。
在生态营销观念的指导下，企业一方面坚持以消费者需求为中心，按市场
需要来组织和协调营销活动；另一方面强调发挥自身的优势和特长，扬长避短，
避免因盲目跟市场、赶浪潮而带来的失误。注重企业优势和劣势分析和市场机
会和威胁分析，从而取得竞争地位。生态营销观念对企业经营活动有重要的指
导意义，要求企业不仅要做“正确的事”，而且要做“能做的事”。
2．全球营销观念（Global marketing concept）
1983年，著名营销学者西奥多·莱维特写了一篇里程碑式的论文，提出了
“全球营销”(Global Marketing)的思想。他呼吁跨国公司向全世界提供一种
统一的产品，并采用统一的沟通手段。他发现过于强调各个地方的适应性，将
导致生产、分销、广告方面的规模经济损失。他的观点激起了一场暴风雨式的
争论。它的影响之大源于跨国公司在全球无孔不入，而它究竟是提供一个标准
化的产品还是要经过改进来适应当地呢?
经济全球化是当今世界经济发展的最重要趋势，现代化大生产本身的客观
规律必然要求实现全球化分工。在这一经济规律的趋动下，各国企业和产品纷
纷走出国门，在世界范围内寻求发展机会，许多产品都已成为全球产品，许多
支柱产业也已成为国际支柱产业，而不是某一国的产品或产业。特别是实力雄
厚的跨国公司，早已把全球市场置于自己的营销范围内，以一种全球营销观念
来指导公司的营销活动。如可口可乐公司在世界几十个国家布有生产据点和
100多个国家拥有市场，成为一个总部设在美国的全球公司；空中汽车公司早
已不是法国公司而是欧洲公司，并把营销触角伸向各国市场。这些公司都是把
眼光放在世界地图上开展全球营销活动。海尔是我国企业界较早具有这一意识
的公司，他们明确提出要实现“海尔的国际化和国际化的海尔”。所谓“海尔
的国际化”就是通过大规模出口和在境外设厂让海尔迅速走向世界各国。所谓
“国际化的海尔”就是让海尔在世界各国本土化。据报道，海尔首先在知识经
济最发达的美国迈出这一步，美国海尔是海尔按照三位一体(即设计中心、营
销中心、生产中心都在美国)原则成立的本土化海尔，而不是单纯的中国海尔，
其设计中心设在波士顿，营销中心设在纽约，生产制造中心设在南卡罗林那州，
让美国人来经营美国海尔，让美国资源来“养育”美国海尔。
3. 战略营销观念（Strategic marketing concept）
战略营销是建立在客户细分基础上的精细化的营销模式，它的秘密就是：
细分、聚焦、增值。随着社会的发展和企业技术与产品的日趋同质化，企业形
象是越来越重要的战略力。把企业的一切生产经营活动都纳入到塑造、传播和
维护良好企业形象这一主要目标中，并通过良好企业形象的塑造、传播和维持
过程，引导目标公众的行为，最终实现企业和社会长期利益的最大化的经营观
念或经营指导思想，便是战略营销观念。战略营销观念的本质特征是“形象导
向”，其直接的营销作用是形成市场拉力。战略营销带有全局性、战略性和综
合性，是企业管理特别是营销管理的一大趋势。企业必须从“市场营销观念”
走向“战略营销观念”，把在目标公众中塑造、传播和维护其良好的企业形象，
作为贯彻各项宣传促销活动的一条主线。
4．绿色营销观念（Green marketing concept）
近年来，在现代物质文明创造的过程中，生态环境失衡恶化、资源与能源
危机、环境污染、人口膨胀等问题，越来越困扰人类生存现状，阻碍了社会进
步与发展。1972年罗马俱乐部提出“成长的极限”，报告提醒世人重视资源的
有限性和地球环境破坏问题后，环境保护与持续发展密不可分，渐为世人重视。
现实使人们认识到人类应该将自己与自然环境和社会环境统一起来，寻求生态、
能源、人口三者同步、协调、健康发展，与大自然和谐共处，建立一个环境优
美的“绿色文明”。目前，“绿色运动”在全球范围内已开展起来，它包括树立
绿色观念、开发绿色产品、提倡绿色消费、建立绿色市场等内容。1978年西
德实施保护环境的“蓝色天使”（Blue Angle）计划，对在生产和使用过程中
都符合环境要求的商品授予“环境标志”——两支蓝色的橄榄枝环绕一个张
开双臂的小人。80年代是环保意识“崛起的十年”，90年代是环保“行动的十
年”。世界各国掀起了制定实施“环境标志”标准，意在唤起消费者环保意识，
形成“绿色消费观”，我国也开展了绿色产品的研究与开发、生产、销售及服
务等“绿色营销”活动。2008年 6月 1日起禁止在超市和商店中使用超薄塑
料袋。
5. 整合营销观念 (Integrated marketing concept)
进入 80年代，世界各地的营销传播业者和学者专家，无不以整合传播为
探讨未来趋势的主题著书立说，其中美国西北大学著名教授舒尔兹(Don
SChultz)，他与人合作的《整合营销传播》(IMC——Integrated Marketing
Communications)具有里程牌式的作用。
根据美国 4A协会对整合营销传播给出的定义，整合营销是一种作为营销
传播计划的概念。确认一份完整透彻的传播计划有其附加价值存在，这份计划
应评估各种不同的传播技能在策略思考所扮演的角色——例如一般广告、直效
回应、销售促进、公共关系——并且将之结合，透过天衣无缝的整合以提供清
晰、一致的讯息，并发挥最大的传播效果。“不同的乐器，必要时能够一起合
奏，并且演奏出悦耳的和谐之音”。营销组合概念强调将市场营销中各种要素
组合起来的重要性，营销整合则与之一脉相承，但更为强调各种要素之间的关
联性，要求它们成为统一的有机体。在此基础上，整合营销更要求各种营销要
素的作用力统一方向，形成合力，共同为企业的营销目标服务。
整合营销观念改变了把营销活动作为企业经营管理的一项职能的观点，而
是要求所有活动都要整合和协调起来，努力为顾客的利益服务。同时，强调企
业与市场之间互动的关系和影响，努力发现潜在市场和创造新市场。以注重企
业、顾客、社会三方共同利益为中心的整合营销，具有整体与动态性特征，企
业把与消费者之间交流、对话、沟通放在特别重要的地位，是营销观念的变革
和发展。
6．知识营销观念（Knowledge marketing concept）
知识营销观念是知识经济发展的产物，是知识经济相适应的一种新营销观
念。它高度重视知识、信息和智力，凭知识和智力而不是凭经验在日益激烈的
市场营销战中取胜。为此，主要充分捕捉和利用市场信息，开发和生产科技含
量高的产品，选择和运用现代化营销手段。21世纪知识经济不同于 20世纪的
工业经济，智力资本将成为第一资本，决定着企业面向未来的竞争优势。智力
优势是知识经济时代的最重要优势，比尔·盖茨的微软公司在资产负债表上的
资产总额只有通用汽车公司资产总额的 4%左右，而它的市场价值却相当于通
用汽车市场价值的 4倍。之所以如此，是因为微软生产经营的是知识经济时代
的重要产品——电脑软件，而通用生产经营的是工业经济时代的典型产品
——汽车。
7．网络营销观念（Internet marketing concept）
网络营销是以互联网络为媒体，以新的方式、方法和理念实施营销活动，
更有效促成个人和组织交易活动的实现。九十年代初，飞速发展的国际互联网
（Internet）促使网络技术应用的指数增长，全球范围内掀起应用互联网热，
世界各大公司纷纷上网提供信息服务和拓展业务范围，积极改组企业内部结构
和发展新的管理营销方法，抢搭这班世纪之车。当今社会，网络技术的发展和
应用改变了信息的分配和接受方式，改变了人们生活、工作、学习、合作和交
流的环境，企业也必须积极利用新技术变革企业经营理念、经营组织、经营方
式和经营方法，搭上技术发展的快速便车，促使企业飞速发展。网络营销是适
应网络技术发展与信息网络年代社会变革的新生事物，必将成为跨世纪的营销
策略。
8．关系营销观念（Relationship marketing concept）
20世纪 80年代中期美国市场学者巴·本·杰克逊提出关系营销,一般学者
都将关系营销界定为买卖之间的依赖关系的营销。关系营销是市场营销者与顾
客、供应商、分销商等建立、保持并加强合作关系，通过互利交换及共同履行
诺言，使各方实现各自目的的营销方式。主要包括以下各关系方:企业与原材
料、燃料供应商之间的关系; 企业与经销渠道部门的中间商之间的关系; 企
业与为企业生产生活服务的服务商之间的关系; 企业与科教文卫部门之间的
关系; 企业与顾客之间的关系; 企业与同行企业之间的关系; 企业与内部各
职能部门之间的关系; 企业与员工之间的关系; 企业与股东、股民之间的关系。
关系营销的本质特征是：信息沟通的双向性、战略过程的协同性、营销活
动的互利性、信息反馈的及时性。关系营销的最终结果是建立公司的最好资产，
即一个营销网（Marketing Net）。营销网由公司与所有它的利益攸关者：顾客、
员工、供应商、分销商、零售商、广告代理人等群体，建立互利的业务关系。
Reading around
Micro-Marketing and Macro-Marketing
Marketing is both a set of activities performed by
organizations and a social process. In other words, marketing
exists at both the micro and macro levels. Micro-marketing is the
performance of activities that seek to accomplish an
organization’s objectives by anticipating customer or client needs
and directing a flow of need-satisfying goods and services from
producer to customer or client. Macro-marketing is a social process
that directs an economy’s flow of goods and services from
producers to consumers in a way that effectively matches supply and
demand and accomplishes the objectives of society.
Like micro-marketing, macro-marketing is concerned with the
flow of need-satisfying goods and services from producer to
consumer. However, the emphasis with macro-marketing is not on the
activities of individual organizations. Instead, the emphasis is on
how the whole marketing system works. This includes looking at how
marketing affects society, and vice versa. Every society needs a
macro-marketing system to help match supply and demand. Different
producers in a society have different objectives, resources, and
skills. Likewise, not all consumers share the same needs,
preferences, and wealth. In other words, within every society there
are both heterogeneous supply capabilities and heterogeneous
demands for goods and service. The role of a macro-marketing system
is to effectively match this heterogeneous supply and demand and at
the same time accomplish society’s objectives.
Assistant resources
4Ps、4Cs到 4Rs的经典营销理论
4Ps（product、price、place、promotion）理论是由美国学者罗杰姆·麦
卡锡（Jerome·McCarthy）在 20世纪 50年代末提出的，对市场营销理论和实
践产生了深刻的影响，被营销经理们奉为营销理论中的经典。而且，如何在 4Ps
理论指导下实现营销组合，实际上也是公司市场营销的基本运营方法。即使在
今天，几乎每份营销计划书都是以 4Ps的理论框架为基础拟订的，几乎每本营
销教科书和每个营销课程都把 4Ps作为教学的基本内容，而且几乎每位营销经
理在策划营销活动时，都自觉、不自觉地从 4Ps理论出发考虑问题。4Ps营销
策略是对企业可控的各种营销手段的综合应用，包括产品策略、价格策略、分
销渠道策略和促销策略四部分。
4Cs(Customer、Cost、Convenience、Communication)理论是美国市场学
家罗伯特·劳特伯恩在 20世纪 80年代提出的，该理论从消费者角度提出了与
4Ps相对应的 4Cs，即消费者的欲望和需要、消费者获取满足的成本、购买的
方便性和沟通，如表 1-2所示。4Cs营销理论强调，企业要首先了解、研究、
分析消费者的需要与欲求，而不是先考虑企业能生产什么产品；企业要首先了
解消费者满足需要与欲求愿意付出多少钱(成本)，而不是先给产品定价，即向
消费者要多少钱；企业要首先考虑顾客购物等交易过程如何给顾客方便，而不
是先考虑销售渠道的选择和策略；企业要通过互动、沟通等方式，将企业内外
营销不断进行整合，把顾客和企业双方的利益无形地整合在一起。
表 1-2 从 4Ps到 4Cs
4Ps 4Cs
产品（product） 消费者的欲望和需要（ customer needs
and wants）
价格（price） 消 费 者 获 取 满 足 的 成 本 （ cost to
customer）
渠道（place） 购买的方便性（Convenience）
促销（promotion） 沟通（communication）
总起来看，4Cs营销理论注重以消费者需求为导向，与市场导向的 4Ps相
比，4Cs有了很大的进步和发展。但从企业的营销实践和市场发展的趋势看，
4Cs依然存在以下不足：
一是 4Cs是顾客导向，而市场经济要求的是竞争导向，中国的企业营销也
已经转向了市场竞争导向阶段。顾客导向与市场竞争导向的本质区别是：前者
看到的是新的顾客需求；后者不仅看到了需求，还更多地注意到了竞争对手，
冷静分析自身在竞争中的优、劣势并采取相应的策略，在竞争中求发展。二是
随着 4Cs理论融入营销策略和行为中，经过一个时期的运作与发展，虽然会推
动社会营销的发展和进步，但企业营销又会在新的层次上同一化，不同企业至
多是个程度的差距问题，并不能形成营销个性或营销特色，不能形成营销优势，
保证企业顾客份额的稳定性、积累性和发展性。三是 4Cs以顾客需求为导向，
但顾客需求有个合理性问题。顾客总是希望质量好，价格低，特别是在价格上
要求是无界限的。只看到满足顾客需求的一面，企业必然付出更大的成本，久
而久之，会影响企业的发展。所以从长远看，企业经营要遵循双赢的原则，这
是 4Cs需要进一步解决的问题。四是 4Cs仍然没有体现既赢得客户，又长期地
拥有客户的关系营销思想，没有解决满足顾客需求的操作性问题，如提供集成
解决方案、快速反应等。五是 4Cs总体上虽是 4Ps的转化和发展，但被动适应
顾客需求的色彩较浓。根据市场的发展，需要从更高层次以更有效的方式在企
业与顾客之间建立起有别于传统的新型的主动性关系。如互动关系、双赢关系、
关联关系等。
4Rs（relevance、retrenchment、relationship、recompense）理论是近
来由美国 提出的，4Rs阐述了一个全新的营销四要素：
①Relevance与顾客建立关联
在竞争性市场中，顾客具有动态性。顾客忠诚度是变化的，他们会转移到
其它企业。要提高顾客的忠诚度，赢得长期而稳定的市场，重要的营销策略是
通过某些有效的方式在业务、需求等方面与顾客建立关联，形成一种互助、互
求、互需的关系，把顾客与企业联系在一起，这样就大大减少了顾客流失的可
能性。特别是企业对企业的营销与消费市场营销完全不同，更需要靠关联、关
系来维系。
②Retrenchment提高市场反应速度
在今天的相互影响的市场中，对经营者来说最现实的问题不在于如何控制、
制定和实施计划，而在于如何站在顾客的角度及时地倾听顾客的希望、渴望和
需求，并及时答复和迅速作出反应，满足顾客的需求。
③Relationship关系营销越来越重要了
在企业与客户的关系发生了本质性变化的市场环境中，抢占市场的关键已
转变为与顾客建立长期而稳固的关系，从交易变成责任，从顾客变成拥趸，从
管理营销组合变成管理和顾客的互动关系。
④Recompense回报是营销的源泉
对企业来说，市场营销的真正价值在于其为企业带来短期或长期的收入和
利润的能力。一方面，追求回报是营销发展的动力；另一方面，回报是维持市
场关系的必要条件。企业要满足客户需求，为客户提供价值，但不能做“仆人”。
因此，营销目标必须注重产出，注重企业在营销活动中的回报。一切营销活动
都必须以为顾客及股东创造价值为目的。
4Rs理论有 4大优势：
一是 4Rs营销理论的最大特点是以竞争为导向，在新的层次上概括了营销
的新框架。4Rs根据市场不断成熟和竞争日趋激烈的形势，着眼于企业与顾客
互动与双赢，不仅积极地适应顾客的需求，而且主动地创造需求，运用优化和
系统的思想去整合营销，通过关联、关系、反应等形式与客户形成独特的关系，
把企业与客户联系在一起，形成竞争优势。可以说 4Rs是新世纪营销理论的创
新与发展，必将对营销实践产生积极而重要的影响。二是 4Rs体现并落实了关
系营销的思想。通过关联、关系和反应，提出了如何建立关系、长期拥有客户、
保证长期利益的具体的操作方式，这是一个很大的进步。三是反应机制为互动
与双赢、建立关联提供了基础和保证，同时也延伸和升华了便利性。四是“回
报”兼容了成本和双赢两方面的内容。追求回报，企业必然实施低成本战略，
充分考虑顾客愿意付出的成本，实现成本的最小化，并在些基础上获得更多的
顾客份额，形成规模效益。这样，企业为顾客提供价值和追求回报相辅相成，
相互促进，客观上达到的是一种双赢的效果。 当然，4Rs同任何理论一样，
也有其不足和缺陷。如与顾客建立关联、关系，需要实力基础或某些特殊条件，
并不是任何企业可以轻易做到的。但不管怎样，4Rs提供了很好的思路，是经
营者和营销人员应该了解和掌握的。
Key terms
Market() Marketing()
Exchange() Need()
Want() Demand()
Customer value() Customer satisfaction()
Marketing management() Production concept()
Product concept() Selling concept()
Marketing concept() Societal marketing concept()
Marketing mix()
Exercises
I. Discussion
1. What constitutes a market? Go online, search for the B2C
market and the B2B market.
2. Discuss what does the term marketing mean and explain the
importance of discovering and satisfying consumer needs and wants.
3. Briefly discuss the differences between the marketing
concept and the production, product, and selling concepts. Which
concepts are easier to adopt in the short run? Which concept offers
the best chance of long-run success? Why?
4. Discuss the differences between selling and marketing
orientations.
5. Describe the marketing management process.
6. Give an example of a company that might be successfully
following a production orientation. Why might a firm in this
industry be successful following such an orientation?
7. Marketing is managing profitable customer relationships.
Discuss the concept of customer value and how it relates to
successful marketing.
8. Briefly describe the four elements of a marketing mix.
9. Donale E. Petersen, former chairman of the board of ford
Motor Company, remarked, “If we aren’t customer driven, our cars
won’t be either.” Explain how this statement reflects the
marketing concept.
a recent purchase you made. Indicate why that
particular product was available at a store and, in particular, at
the store where you bought it.
II. Projects and Applications
Imagine that you are a future marketing strategist, visit one
of the next Web sites: , , , and .
1. Make yourself familiar with the range of products of the
retailer offers, and describe ways in which the owner might add
value to the goods or services offered.
2. Identify new and promising product opportunities for the
retailer.
3. Choose one of the product opportunities you identified. What
makes it distinctive and promising?
4. Write a brief marketing plan. And present your plan to the
class and ask your classmates whether it would encourage them to
shop at your chosen’s retailer.
III. True or false
1. Marketing can be understood as making a sale through selling
and advertising. ( )
2. In a buyer’s market, demand exceeds supply. ( )
3. Marketing managers must balance consumer, organizational,
and societal interests. This involves issues of ethics and social
responsibility. ( )
4. Profit-making and nonprofit organizations perform marketing
activities. They market goods, services, and ideas that benefit
consumers, organizations, and countries. ( )
5. Simply put, marketing management is customer management and
demand management. ( )
6. Because an organization doesn’t have the resources to
safisfy the needs of all consumers, it selects a target market of
potential customers---a subset of the entire market---on which to
focus its marketing program. ( )
7. When backed by buying power, wants become demands. ( )
8. The key to building lasting relationships is the creatin of
superior customer value and satisfactin, and companies need to
understand the determinants of these important elements. ( )
9. Customer value is the difference between the values that the
customer gains from owning and using a product and the costs of
obtaining the product. ( )
10. Marketing concept states that an organization should to
preserve or enhance society’s long-term welfare. ( )
IV. Multiple choices (select one or more choices)
1. The size of a market depends on ( )
A. The number of people who exhibit the need
B. Resources to engage in exchange
C. Willing to exchange these resources for what they want
D. The ages of consumer
2. Which concept holds the philosophy that consumers will favor
those products that are widely available and low in cost?
A. The production concept
B. The product concept
C. The selling concept
D. The marketing concept
3. Under ( ), companies produce what consumers want, thereby
satisfying consumers and making profits.
A. The production concept
B. The product concept
C. The selling concept
D. The marketing concept
4. Product-oriented companies often design products without
( ) input.
A. customer
B. president
C. supplier
D. engineer
5. The societal marketing concept calls upon marketers to
balance and juggle the often conflicting criteria of ( )
A. company profits, consumer want satisfaction, and supplier’s
interest
B. company profits, government’s interest, and society’s
interest
C. supplier’s profits, consumer want satisfaction, and
society’s interest
D. company profits, consumer want satisfaction, and society’s
interest
V. Fill the gaps in the sentences below with fitting words
1. Marketing occurs when people decide to satisfy needs and
wants through ( ).
2. Marketing creats ( ), the benefits or customer value
received by users of the product.
3. Marketing mix involves four elements, they are ( )、
( )、( )、( ).
4. ( )are the people who use the goods and sevices
purchased for a household.
5. These are five alternative concepts under which
organizations conduct their marketing activities: ( )、
( )、( )、( )、( ) .
6. Marketing management as the art and science of choosing
target ( ) and building profitable relationships with them.
7. There are four different utilities: ( )、( )、
( )、( )、( ) .
8. Customer satisfaction is the feeling that a product has met
or exceeded the customer’s ( ).
9. In the marketing terms,( )can be defined as the set of
all actual and potential buyers of a product or service.
10. Markets can be divide five types: ( )、( )、
( )、( )、( ) .
VI. Case study
Read the questions, then the case material, then answer the
questions.
Qestions:
1. Based on what you have read in the case, describe Amway’s
marketing management philosophy. Cite information from the case to
support your answer.
2. Analyze the needs of people who might buy a Amway’s products.
3. Discuss with the actual buyers of Amway’s on what benefits they
got and what they hope provide, then give some useful suggestions.
Corporate Social Responsibility
Amway is one of the world's largest direct sales organisations.
It has over three million Independent Business Owners (IBOs). These
IBOs source products from Amway and sell them in their own local
businesses. Many of them are couples with families. This makes them
happy to support Amway's efforts to work with UNICEF, the United
Nations Children's Fund. This is part of Amway's Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) strategy. CSR refers to the way that
businesses work in a responsible way and contribute to the
communities within which they operate.
One by One
Amway's vision is to help people lead better lives by providing
low cost and low risk business opportunities. Amway supplies
branded products to its IBOs, who sell them in their own
communities. The IBOs agree to trade honestly and responsibly. They
are Amway's link into local communities and can introduce others to
the business. Amway's 'One by One' campaign is designed to give
children all over the world a better chance. Since 2001, Amway
Europe has partnered with UNICEF and contributed around £
million to the charity. The focus is on supporting the worldwide
'Immunisation Plus' programme. This involves, for example,
providing measles vaccines to children. The 'Plus' is about using
immunisation to deliver other life-saving services for children.
The IBOs act as 'Champions', traveling to meet the children and
spreading the message in their own groups.
Values
One of Amway's main values is to be a caring company. It has
developed a strategy, or set of ideas, to help it reach this aim.
Its Global Cause strategy is what led it to support UNICEF. This
feeds into European and UK strategies. The objective is to raise
around £350,000 a year every year until 2010 to help combat
children's diseases. In 2005 Amway became an official corporate
partner of UNICEF, setting up a close long-term relationship.
Stakeholders
The CSR strategy has the interests of Amway's various
stakeholders in mind:Amway: it helps to grow the business;IBOs:
want Amway to be a caring organization;Customers: want the
businesses they deal with to be responsible;Staff: want to work for
a responsible organization;UNICEF: want to work with a business
that shares their values and helps them raise funds.
Amway supports UNICEF through sales of items such as greetings
cards, wrapping paper and children's toys. In addition, its staff
are involved in fund-raising events.
Communication
Clear communication helps the strategy to run smoothly. This
includes:face-to-face communication – regular meetings between the
various partners;printed material: Amway produce a monthly magazine
for IBOs;public relations;email to keep IBOs up to date;online, for
example, the site at .uk/amway.
(Source: study)
Answer
Chapter 1
III. True or false:
1~5 FFTTT, 6~10TTTTF
IV. Multiple choices (select one or more choices)
,B,C 2. B
V. Fill the gaps in the sentences below with fitting words
, price, place, promotion
consumers
concept, product concept, selling concept,
marketing concept, societal marketing concept
utility, time utility, form utility, possession utility
10. consumer markets, business markets,
reseller markets, government markets, international markets
References
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Rosalind Masterson and David Pickton(2005) Marketing Peking
University Press
小威廉D.佩勒尔特和E.杰罗姆.麦卡锡,赵银德改编(2007),市场营销学基
础,机械工业出版社
McDaniel &Lamb&Hair(2006),市场营销学,上海人民出版社
应斌(2005),市场营销学,武汉理工大学出版社
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Mcdaniel(1998),Marketing(Fourth Edition),东北财经大学出版社
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