（定价策略）均衡价格与
市场
Chapter Three Equilibrium Price and Market
第 3章 均衡价格与市场
市场是由供求双方共同构成的。利用价格决定理论研究市场供
求关系，由此来分析解决资源合理配置问题，是微观经济学研
究的中心内容。在研究了需求、供给之后，就必须要讨论和研
究价格与市场问题。本章内容要点是市场与市场经济的特点，
均衡价格的含义及其形成过程，市场的类型，市场的建设，期
货市场的特点与功能。
Characteristics and Construction Methods of Market
Economy
市场经济的特点与建设措施
一、市场及其构成要素
（一）什么是市场
Market The interaction between buyers and sellers.
所谓市场，从狭义上讲，是指商品交换的场所；从广义上讲，
市场是商品交换关系的总和。从前一层含义来说，市场可以是
集贸市场或专业商品市场，具体地讲可以是一个集市、一个商
店或一个贸易货栈等；从后一层含义来讲，市场是所有的商品
生产者和交换者的商品交换关系的集合。
（二）市场的构成要素
一般情况下，市场的构成要素主要有三个：一是有某种需要的
人；二是具有能够满足这种需要的购买能力；三是购买欲望。
如果把市场的要素构成用公式表示就是：市场＝人口＋购买力
＋购买欲望。市场的这三个因素是相互制约的，缺一不可，只
有三者结合起来，才能形成现实的市场，某一市场的规模和容
量是由这三者共同决定的。例如，一个地区人口比较多，购买
欲望很大，但收入水平很低，购买力很低，构不成容量很大的
市场。又比如，居民收入水平很高，购买力虽然很强，但人口
数量很少，也不能构成很大容量的市场。一个地区人口既多，
购买力又高，才能成为一个有潜力的大市场。但是，如果产品
不适合需要，不能引起人们的购买欲望，对销售者来说，仍然
不能形成现实的市场。市场是三个构成要素的有机统一体。
二、市场经济的特点与类型
（一）市场经济的特点
Market economy An economy where all economic decisions
are taken by individual households and firms, and
which relies on the price mechanism to allocate the
resources.
市场经济是一种用价格机制决定资源配置的经济体制。在这种
经济体制中，资源配置的决策由单个经济单位作出。机制一词
原意是指机器构造及其制动原理和运行规则。在这里，被用来
说明社会本身的运行、调节的方式和规律。价格机制又称为市
场机制，是价格调节社会经济生活的方式和规律。价格机制包
括价格调节经济的条件，以及价格调节经济的方式。市场经济
有以下几个方面的特点：
1、企业是独立的经济单位。
企业是独立运用经营要素，实行独立经营、独立核算、自负盈
亏，以取得盈利为目的，具有法人地位的社会经济组织。在市
场经济中，存在生产者自由，经营决策由企业独立自主地作出。
2、生产要素可以自由流动。
在市场经济中，商品的价格由买卖双方供求关系决定，生产者
对生产什么，生产多少，为谁生产的决策可以自主地选择。因
此，资源的合理配置问题是由生产者独立地做出，资源在各个
行业间可以自由流动。同样，消费者的购买行为，完全可以根
据价格及个人的消费偏好进行确定，具有选择的自主权。
3、通过价格调节经济。
价格调节就是价格是经济运行的调节者，由市场竞争决定的价
格是资源配置的主要手段。通过价格对经济进行调节是市场经
济和计划经济的主要区别。价格调节经济必须具备三个条件：
其一，经济单位是独立的经济实体；其二，存在市场；其三，
市场竞争的完全性与公平性。在完全竞争市场条件下，不存在
买方和卖方垄断的问题。
（二）市场的类型
对于市场的类型可以按以下几种标准进行划分：
1、根据商品交换内容，可分为：农产品市场、家用电器市
场、建筑材料市场、日用百货市场、化工原料市场和车辆交易
市场等。
2、根据商品交换场所，可分为：国内市场和外贸市场。国
内市场又分为农村集市、城镇产品市场、沿海产品市场、边境
产品市场和经济特区产品市场等。
3、根据产品的经济用途，可分为：消费资料市场和生产资
料市场。消费资料市场上交易的商品主要是城乡居民生活必需
品，如粮食、蔬菜、水果、衣服等。生产资料市场上交易的商
品主要是种子、农药、化肥、饲料、农机、机械零配件等各业
生产的生产资料。
4、根据产品交易方式，可分为：现货交易市场和期货交易
市场。现货市场的交易特点是买卖双方交易的是现实交割的商
品；期货市场买卖双方交易的是标准化期货交易合同。
5、根据市场经营环节，可分为：批发(wholesale)市场和零售
(retail)市场。批发是指一切将商品或服务给为了转卖给他人
或商业用途而进行购买行为的个人或组织的营销活动，批发市
场是进行商品批量交易的市场。从事批发经营的主体主要有：
商人批发商(wholesaler)、经纪人(broker)或代理销售商(sale
agent)等；零售是指所有向最终消费者直接销售产品或服务的
营销活动。零售市场是进行商品零星交易的市场。从事零售业
务的商品经营者主要有商店零售商、无门市零售商和零售机构
等。
三、价格在市场经济中的作用
（一）价格调节经济的条件
均衡价格是调节经济的“看不见的手”，但是，要让“看不见的
手”发挥作用还需要一些条件，换言之，市场经济中价格的调
节作用以三个重要的假设为前提条件。
1、商品交易者是有理性的经济人。
在市场上无论居民户或厂商，每一个人都有能力自觉地追求个
人利益的最大化。只有这样，价格才能自发地有效地引导人们
的经济行为。
2、市场是完全竞争的。
这就是说，每一个消费者或生产者都不能通过人为的关系改变
由市场决定的价格，市场上的商品价格是由所有供给者和需求
者双方共同决定的，每个交易者只是价格的接受者，不是决定
者。
3、信息是完全畅通的。
这就是说，市场上任何一个消费者或生产者都可以免费得到作
出决策所需要的信息。任何一方都不能利用信息优势欺骗对方。
（二）价格在经济中的调节作用
The price mechanism The system in a market economy
whereby changes in price in response to changes in
demand and supply have the effect of making demand
equal to supply.
在这样的前提下，美国经济学家 N费里德曼把价格在经济中的
作用归纳为三种:一是传递情报；二是提供一种刺激，促使人们
采用最节约的办法进行生产；三是决定谁可以得到多少产品。
这三种作用实际上解决了资源配置的三个问题：生产什么、如
何生产和为谁生产的问题。其作用可以具体化为：
第一，作为指示器反映市场的供求状况。市场供求关系是受各
种因素的影响的，每时每刻都在变化。这种变化必然要反映在
价格上，人们通过价格的波动来了解供求的变动。
第二，价格的变动可以调节市场需求。消费者为了实现效用最
大化，一定要按价格的变动来进行购买与消费。当某种商品的
价格下降时，消费者就会多买，当某种商品的价格上升时，消
费者就会少买。
第三，价格的变动可以调节市场供给。生产者为了实现利润最
大化，一定要按价格的变动来进行生产与销售。当某种商品的
价格下降时，生产者就会少生产，当某种商品的价格上升时，
生产者就会多生产。
第四，价格可以使资源配置达到最优化。通过价格调节需求与
供给，最终会使需求与供给相等，实现消费者的效用最大化，
同时实现生产者的利润最大化，达到消费者与生产者的均衡，
实现资源配置的最优化。
四、价格调节经济的方式
价格调节经济的方式主要有二：其一，价格信号反映市场上的
商品供求状态，指导人们作出正确的选择。其二，价格机制对
经济进行自发的调节。没有任何外力的作用，价格也可以对经
济进行自发的调节。因为价格可以对经济起到自发的调节作用，
所以人们把价格对经济的调节作用形象地比喻为是“一只看不
见的手”，价格主要是通过市场供求关系的变化来对经济进行调
节，协调商品的需求与供给。
五、搞好市场建设的基本措施
（一）建立和完善市场运行机制
市场运行机制，是指构成市场的各个要素的相互联系、相
互制约而发挥功能的关系体系。建立和完善市场运行机制主要
要做好的工作有：建立和完善市场体系，理顺产品价格体系，
加强市场基础设施建设，加强市场秩序管理，搞好市场管理的
法制化建设，加强市场行情预测和预报，进行科学的市场信息
网络建设，提供优质的各种市场服务等。
（二）鼓励开展正当的市场竞争行为
市场经济的主要特征是买卖双方可以自由竞争，买者和买
者之间可以自由竞争，卖者和卖者之间也可以自由竞争。在市
场竞争中，主要是卖者之间的竞争，竞争的内容有：
1、质量竞争 quality competition。产品质量是市场竞争中取
胜的关键性因素，俗语说“不怕不识货，就怕货比货。质量问
题是市场竞争的关键。同时，产品的外观形状、色泽、包装、
商标和售后服务也是重要的产品竞争内容。
2、价格竞争 price competition。在产品质量相近的情况
下，价格高低是产品市场竞争能力高低的重要影响因素。商品
价格比较低，商品需求量就会较多。
3、服务竞争 service competition。在产品质量和价格相
同的情况下，服务是否到位直接影响着产品的市场竞争力。优
质的售后服务是扩大商品销路的重要手段。
4、时间竞争 time competition。时间就是生命，时间就
是财富。有了物美价廉的产品，还必须掌握适当的投放市场的
时机，谁能以在用户最需要的时间里以最快的速度提供商品和
劳务性服务，谁就能在市场竞争中取得优势。
5、信誉竞争 reputation competition。信誉是顾客心目
中对某些企业和产品的信任感。良好的信誉是在市场竞争中保
持稳定优势的重要条件。在这方面，努力提高商品在用户心目
中的知名度和美誉度是非常重要的促销手段和措施。
（三）搞好市场的合理布局和选址
在这方面要和社区经济建设的长远规划相结合，重点是搞好现
有集贸市场的改造和升级，在市场地址选择上应以方便居民生
活为主要原则，同时充分考虑到生产和经济建设的长远发展需
要，另外还要适当尊重当地居民的历史习惯，考虑地区和民族
的风俗文化特点，有些有历史特色的经济和文化名市要结合约
定俗成的历史传统要适当给予保留，如洛阳的关林市场，南京
夫子庙市场等。
Exercises:
Markets - The Efficiency of the Invisible Hand
The News
Image: Pope John Paul II. His death led to the election
of a new Pope - Joseph Ratzinger became Pope Benedict
VI. Ratzinger was one of 115 potential candidates but
could you have predicted who it would eventually be?
The markets did!
Title: Pope Makes Landmark Hundredth Foreign Trip.
Copyright: Getty Images, available from Education Image
Gallery
The death of Pope John Paul II on April 2nd 2005
prompted the process of a conclave at which a new Pope
would be elected. 115 cardinals entered the Sistine
Chapel in Rome for secret discussions and a series of
ballots that would determine who was to be the next
Pope. In theory, any one of the 115 cardinals could
have been candidates but only one of their numbers
would emerge.
On May 5th 2005, the UK will have a general election.
The winner of the election will be one of the three
major political parties - Labour, Conservative or
Liberal Democrat. In reality, the race will really only
be between two of these - the Conservatives and Labour.
4 weeks before the actual election could you have
predicted who would win?
In these two situations there is an outcome. The
outcome in each case is uncertain but subject to some
element of certainty that can be identified. In the
case of the Pope, either Cardinal Ratzinger would be
elected Pope or he would not; Cardinal Scola, the
Patriarch of Venice and the subject of thousands of
jokes, would also either become Pope or he would not.
Labour will win the general election or it will not.
The Conservatives will win the general election or it
will not and so on. Each of these events has an
unambiguous outcome. As such, a contract can be issued
on this outcome.
There are now a series of markets called Trade Exchange
Networks that exist to enable individuals to buy and
sell contracts on the outcome of such events. It
appears that these markets are highly efficient in
predicting the future. Their efficiency is such that
the Pentagon, the United States Defence Department,
floated the idea of using such markets to get
information on politically sensitive outcomes like the
possibilities of the US president being assassinated or
the likelihood of a terrorist attack on the Houses of
Parliament.
Their plans were withdrawn after it was feared that
assassins or terrorists with inside information could
use the markets! One of the main principles of these
markets is that those who trade in them are not party
to inside information which would distort the whole
workings of the market.
Image: Some of these markets were extremely efficient
in predicting the winner of the US presidential
election in 2004; in some cases they were able to
predict accurately which party would win which state
and even the proportion of votes the parties gained!
Title: Bush Celebrates 4th Of July In West Virginia.
Copyright: Getty Images, available from Education Image
Gallery
What these markets are doing, therefore, is bringing
together thousands, if not more, individuals all
seeking to make a profit. They make a profit by buying
and selling the contracts at different prices. The
prices will rise and fall depending on the perceived
outcome of the contract.
A contract, therefore, could be announced that Michael
Howard will win the election. If he does, then the
contract will pay out £10. If not, it will pay out
nothing. In the time up to the outcome, the contracts
can be traded by the buyers and sellers in this market.
If, as the election approaches, it looks as though
Michael Howard will win the election then demand for
the contract will rise and the price will also rise. If
I bought the contract at the start of the period, I may
have paid £, as the election approaches and the
price rises I might decide to sell it at £ thus
making a profit of £ for each contract I own.
The person buying the contract at £ will, if
Michael Howard does win the election, get £10 thus
making a profit of £. If the market feels the
chances of Michael Howard winning are receding then
they will try to sell and the price will fall. They
will want to sell because holding on to the contract
will mean they get nothing at the maturity of the
contract period.
Buyers will, therefore, either buy thinking the price
is going to rise or sell thinking the price is going to
fall. For each trade, the Exchange charges a small
commission.
The traders who are successful are the ones who
correctly predict the outcome. To help them in their
decision making they may well be watching polls, signs,
news items, etc. very carefully. What happens,
therefore, is that the combined wisdom of thousands of
individuals is brought together through this trading
process. The market can be very accurate in predicting
outcomes.
Theory
A market is any place that brings together buyers and
sellers with a view to agreeing a price for exchange.
This means that markets could be anything from a
street market to a supermarket to e-Bay, a pub, club,
the London Metal Exchange, or a drugs transaction on a
street corner. Whether legal or not, each of these
examples has the characteristics of a buyer, a seller
and a price.
The 'market' is often spoken of as being an entity in
itself, something tangible that exists somewhere out
there in the world. We hear people saying things like,
'the market needs to cater for those less able to help
themselves' or 'the market must take into account the
effects on the environment'.
The market, however, is not a physical identity. It is
made up of people. In some cases, the number in 'the
market' can be very small, in other instances there
are millions of people who make up the market.
As an individual, you are part of hundreds of markets
but to illustrate the point we are going to assume you
are walking into HMV or Virgin, or similar retail
store, to buy a CD. This example is going to refer to
the market for CDs. Within this overall market,
however, there are thousands of sub-markets - such
markets will depend on the type of music - rock, blues,
jazz, garage, drum 'n' bass, classical, world, etc.
You have no particular CD in mind but want to spend
some time browsing the shelves. You have £30 to
spend.
The Demand Side
You represent the buyer, the demand for CDs. However,
you bring to the market a peculiar set of individual
and unique characteristics. As a potential buyer of
CDs you have a certain demand schedule - a demand
function. We express this function in the following
manner.
D = f (Pn, Pn... Pn-1, Y, T, P, A)
This means: the level of demand (D) is dependent upon
(is a function of (f)) Price (Pn), the prices of other
goods (Pn... Pn-1) - substitutes and complements,
Incomes (Y), Tastes (T), the level and structure of
the population (P) and the level of advertising (A).
As you walk into the store, therefore, you are
bringing with you a set of characteristics based on
each of these factors which will determine ultimately
what or whether you buy anything.
You might be swayed by the price of the range of CDs
on offer, for example, some offers might mean you
could buy 3 for £20 as opposed to two for £15 each;
there might be a sales rack with CDs priced at £
but they might not be ones that you would necessarily
buy at full price. You have a limited income - most
people do - so you want to make sure you get value for
money.
This is termed 'utility' - the measure of satisfaction
gained from a product. Utility is impossible to
measure in the same way we measure length or volume.
It is entirely subjective yet it is vitally important
in guiding our spending decisions.
Image: Buyers and sellers coming together in a market.
What will determine the final decision of the buyer
and how does the seller try to anticipate this?
Title: Music Industry Hunts Illegal File Swappers.
Copyright: Getty Images, available from Education
Image Gallery
You are also going to be affected by the range of
other goods available - there might be a CD of a band
you like but also a DVD of a live performance. The DVD
would be referred to as a substitute - something that
can be used instead of another good but which
effectively does the same job. Your decision on the CD
or the DVD might depend on
whether you have a DVD player. The DVD player would be
referred to as a complement
- something that tends to be bought along with another
good or service.
Your age might also affect your spending decisions.
You will be wandering around the store with hundreds
of other people of all different ages. Age might be an
important factor in determining the type of demand for
a product; you might not find too many teenagers
crushed around the 'easy listening' section of the
store but neither are you likely to find too many
pensioners rooting through the gangster rap CDs. The
age structure and the size of the population are
important determinants of demand.
Finally, the other major determinant of demand is
advertising. This will be advertising that is not only
in the store itself but also from the TV, radio,
magazines and so on. You might go into a store, hear a
track playing on the in-store radio and really like it
and decide to buy it for that reason. Such facilities
are simply a form of advertising for the store.
The Supply Side
Facing you as you walk into the store are hundreds of
CDs, store assistants, artists, producers, recording
engineers, marketing people and others screaming out
at you to buy their product. They have used all manner
of methods to try to get you to select their
particular CD amongst the thousands that are on offer.
There might be 50,000 CDs for sale in the store but
you might leave having bought only two of them or even
none at all!
Supply, like demand, is dependent on a number of
factors. Supply is completely independent of demand;
supply does not depend on demand any more than demand
is dependent on supply. There might be some
relationship between the two but they are not
dependent on each other. This is very important to
remember and is often a source of confusion in student
answers.
Supply is represented, like demand, as a function:
S = f (Pn, Pn... Pn-1, H, N, E, F1...Fm)
This says the level of supply (S) is dependent on (is
a function of (f)) the price of the good (Pn), the
prices of goods in joint or complementary supply (Pn...
Pn-1), the level of technology (H), natural factors (N)
- the climate, weather, availability of natural
resources, etc., the expectations of producers (E) and
the cost of factors of production in producing the
good/service (F1... Fm).
The supply of CDs may be determined by some or all of
these factors. CD producers and the retail store will
certainly be influenced by the price they think they
can get for the CD, the level of technology will play
a part in how many CDs can be produced and the
efficiency with which they can be produced in addition
to the quality of the product.
The expectations of producers may involve how
successful they think a particular artist or band will
be, the quality of the judgment by the record
companies in this respect may be crucial in
anticipating the market reaction. The costs of
production will include the cost of manufacturing, the
capital equipment involved, the salaries of all the
human resources involved in the process right down to
the sales assistants, the profit margin required, the
cost of land and raw materials, etc. The rental costs
to locate a major store in London's Oxford Street, for
example, are likely to be very high.
The Market
The market, therefore, consists of these two groups of
people. For the most part, they do not know each other
although the supplier may engage in market research to
try to find out more about the people who buy their
products (or who might buy them) but what is happening
is that the seller is offering thousands of CDs for
sale in the hope of persuading you, the buyer, to part
with your money.
You may not think, as a single individual, that you
have much power in these markets. That may be the case,
but remember the market is made up of millions of
individuals each bringing their own set of
characteristics to the market. Your individual
decision is but one that sends a message to the
suppliers about the product they are offering for
sale.
Image: Markets - any place bringing together buyers
and sellers.
Title: Kashmiris Experience A Fragile Peace. Copyright:
Getty Images, available from Education Image Gallery
Let's take the case of two artists in the music
industry. U2 are an international music phenomenon;
sales of their CDs run into millions. When they
release a new album, there is a good chance that it is
going to sell well, they are proven artists. The
record producers might allow the band a good deal of
freedom in the planning, production and content of the
new release because they are trusted artists.
Images: Who would you choose? The Edge, guitarist with
U2 - one of the most successful rock acts of the past
twenty years, and Jan Akkerman during a sound check on
tour in the UK, March 2005.
Copyright - The Edge. Title: The Edge Attends New
Year's Eve Celebration In Dublin. Getty Images,
available from Education Image Gallery.
Copyright - Jan Akkerman. Reproduced by kind
permission of Clive Woodley, and the Jan Akkerman
official site.
Jan Akkerman is a Dutch guitarist. During the early
1970s, Akkerman was in a band called Focus who
achieved international fame and recognition. Akkerman
quit the band in the late 1970s and since then has
pursued a solo career. He is a highly talented and
well respected guitarist but whilst he has a devoted
fan base, he has not sold anything like the number of
CDs that U2 have. His desire to be independent and
pursue his own musical direction means he is not
necessarily someone who a mainstream record company is
likely to invest money in - the extent of the returns
will not, from their point of view, justify such an
investment regardless of his talent.
The number of U2 CDs available in the store is gong to
be much higher than those of Jan Akkerman. The
'market' for U2 is much bigger, . the number of
people who are willing and able to buy their CDs.
However, the record store will consider it important
to cater for other tastes even if they are not as high
profile.
Jan Akkerman is not likely to get his music played on
national radio - he is not backed by the marketing
budgets of the likes of Sony BMG or EMI. Many people
who are potential music buyers, therefore, will never
have heard of Jan Akkerman but the record companies
may feel that the risk involved in investing in this
artist is too risky.
Price Signals
So here you are in the record store. You spend your
time browsing round the aisles sifting through the CDs.
Some catch your eye and others look interesting but
you are not convinced - maybe you have not heard them
before but a friend has suggested the band are good,
some CDs you will skip over because you have never
heard of them!
Your decision will, therefore, be based on a variety
of factors. You eventually select two CDs priced at
£15 each. Your choice has sent a message to the store.
Your choice says I think that the CDs I have chosen
represent value for money - I will get at least £15
worth of value out of listening to each of them and I
did not find anything else that represented better
value for money at this time.
You also send a message that all the other CDs in the
store were not considered worth buying. The numbers of
people who make these totally individual choices
determine the success and failure of the goods and
services in a market. If you chose the U2 CD, you help
to confirm their status as a top rock act, if you did
not choose the Jan Akkerman CD you are sending the
message 'I don't like this artist' or 'I do not know
enough about them to persuade me to give up my limited
resources to take the risk' or you are saying 'this
style of music is not my style'. It might be that for
some reason the packaging put you off, the design of
the cover, or which section it was classified in.
The Importance of Information
To understand how the market works is to try to piece
together all these millions of individual decisions
and try to make sense of them. It is generally felt
that the combined wisdom of the market tends to get
things right but only when buyers and sellers have
enough information on which to make informed choices.
You may have really enjoyed the
Jan Akkerman CD but the fact that you have probably
never heard of him or what his music is like means you
are not able to make an informed choice.
This is where the efficiency of markets is called into
question. Many markets simply do not have informed
buyers and sellers. To make 'the market' work more
efficiently the quality and availability of
information needs to be improved. You might like music
but cannot devote sufficient time to be able to listen
to every artist out there to help you make a really
informed choice.
The network exchange markets however are another thing.
They bring together individuals who devote such time
to building their information about the market they
are entering into. As a result of bringing together a
large number of buyers and sellers with high quality
information, the efficiency of the market in getting
accurate predictions is more likely. Each of those
individuals will not be entering the market with the
aim of helping everyone else but in so doing are in
fact contributing to that outcome.
This, in essence, is what Adam Smith was referring to
by the notion of the 'invisible hand'. Each person
goes about their daily business seeking to maximise
their own welfare given their limited resources. In so
doing they, of necessity, contribute to the welfare of
the community at large. This fundamental principle is
what drives the belief that the market is the most
efficient and effective way of allocating scarce
resources.
Task
You are going to experiment with this by setting up
your own market. Select something appropriate - the
outcome of a football match, the rise or fall of the
Stock Exchange, foreign exchange market or similar.
One person (or a small group) will have to act as the
market makers and monitor the actions of the market -
the rest of the group or the whole institution can be
invited to take part if you wish!
Set up a contract for the event and mark out the
contract on some paper. The group will then buy and
sell the contract in the period up to the event
occurring. One person will have to take responsibility
for recording the transactions - you could even set
this up on the college network!
The proviso here is that for each trade, you must
write a short sentence explaining your reasoning for
your decision. If demand is rising for the contract
the price will rise - 10 units for each extra trader
wanting to buy. So if you set the initial price at £5
and someone asks to buy a contract, the price will go
up to £. If a trader wishes to sell the price
falls by 10 and so on. If there is a large number of
people taking part you can reduce this increment to
something more appropriate. Remember the price cannot
rise above £10.
Make sure the reasons are available for anyone wanting
to get more information on the way the market is
thinking.
Traders can buy more than one contract but each trader
will have a maximum of an imaginary £50 to spend.
When the outcome is known, pay out the contract to
those who hold them and calculate the winners and
losers of all the trades.
Note, this is purely an educational exercise in
helping you to understand markets, no actual money
should be used in this activity.
Source:
教学参考书：
1、孙建锋：《经济学基础》，东北财经大学出版社，2003。
2、徐颂陶：《经济学基础知识》，中国人事出版社，2004。
复习思考题：
梁小民：《西方经济学教学指导书》，中国统计出版社，2002。
