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About IFPRI
The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), established in 1975, provides research-based policy
solutions to sustainably reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition. The Institute conducts research,
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iv
Contents
PREFACE � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 5
Chapter 1
FOOD POLICY IN 2016–2017: FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION IN AN URBANIZING WORLD � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 6
Shenggen Fan
Chapter 2
SMALLHOLDERS AND URBANIZATION: STRENGTHENING RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES TO END HUNGER AND MALNUTRITION � � � � � 14
José Graziano da Silva and Shenggen Fan
Chapter 3
FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION: GROWING CITIES, NEW CHALLENGES � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 24
Marie Ruel, James Garrett, and Sivan Yosef
Chapter 4
CHANGING DIETS: URBANIZATION AND THE NUTRITION TRANSITION � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 34
Corinna Hawkes, Jody Harris, and Stuart Gillespie
Chapter 5
AGRICULTURAL VALUE CHAINS: HOW CITIES RESHAPE FOOD SYSTEMS � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 42
Bart Minten, Thomas Reardon, and Kevin Chen
Chapter 6
GOVERNANCE: INFORMAL FOOD MARKETS IN AFRICA’S CITIES � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 50
Danielle Resnick
REGIONAL DEVELOPMENTS � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 58
Africa � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 60
Tsitsi Makombe, Julia Collins, and Ousmane Badiane
Middle East and North Africa � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 64
Clemens Breisinger, Fatma Abdelaziz, and Nadim Khouri
Central Asia � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 67
Kamiljon Akramov, Allen Park, and Jarilkasin Ilyasov
South Asia � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 71
Anjani Kumar, Akhter Ahmed, Stephen Davies, and P. K. Joshi
East Asia � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 75
Kevin Chen, Peter Timmer, and David Dawe
Latin America and the Caribbean � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 79
Eugenio Díaz-Bonilla and Máximo Torero
FOOD POLICY INDICATORS: TRACKING CHANGE � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 84
Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators (ASTI) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 86
Statistics of Public Expenditure for Economic Development (SPEED) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 92
Global Hunger Index (GHI) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 98
Food Policy Research Capacity Indicators (FPRCI) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 102
Agricultural Total Factor Productivity (TFP) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 105
International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 110
NOTES � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � � 119
Preface
The 2017 Global Food Policy Report provides a comprehensive overview of major food policy developments
and events. In this sixth annual report, leading researchers, policy makers, and practitioners review what hap-
pened in food policy, and why, in 2016 and look forward to 2017. This year’s report has a special focus on the
challenges and opportunities created by rapid urbanization, especially in low- and middle-income countries,
for food security and nutrition.
In 2016, the world embarked on implementing the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with the
goal of eliminating extreme poverty and hunger. The Paris Agreement on Climate Change also entered into
force. Other major international developments included UN endorsement of the Framework for Action that
emerged from the Second International Conference on Nutrition, the launch of the UN Decade of Action on
Nutrition (2016–2025), and the New Urban Agenda adopted at the Habitat III summit in Quito, Ecuador. Also
of note were the G7’s commitment to prioritizing nutrition, the G20’s emphasis on agricultural innovation for
sustainable development, and the record replenishment for the International Development Association (IDA).
Progress in many places on reducing poverty and malnutrition has been notable, with extreme poverty at
the lowest level ever. Hunger rates have fallen substantially in recent years, even dramatically in some coun-
tries, accompanied by falling levels of child stunting and other indicators of malnutrition. Agricultural produc-
tion was up in 2016, and as a result, food prices were down, with benefits for consumers.
Political and economic uncertainties also marked the year. Continuing conflicts and record numbers of
refugees in the Middle East increased the need for humanitarian aid. El Niño and other environmental shocks
reduced harvests in Latin America, parts of Asia, and eastern and southern Africa, increasing food insecurity.
Political events in 2016, including the British vote to leave the European Union and the US elections, along
with continuing economic stagnation and recession in major economies leave the prospects for 2017 more
uncertain than in previous years.
In 2017, the world must move forward with its commitments on the Sustainable Development Goals.
Working to improve food systems and strengthening the ties between rural and urban areas offer great prom-
ise for meeting those goals and ending hunger and malnutrition.
Topics covered in the 2017 Global Food Policy Report were the result of consultations with experts in
the field. For inclusion in this report, a topic must represent a new development in food policy or a new way
of looking at an important food issue; the topic has to be international in scope; and assessments and rec-
ommendations must be backed by evidence based on high-quality research results or expert judgment.
Supplemented by data tables and visualizations illustrating trends in key food policy indicators at the country
level, the report paints a full picture of food policy.
I hope this report is met with interest not only by policy makers who shape the food policy agenda, but
also by business, civil society, and media, who all have a stake in food policies that benefit the world’s poorest
and most vulnerable people.
Shenggen Fan
Director General
3
Acknowledgments
The 2017 Global Food Policy Report was prepared under the overall leadership of Shenggen Fan and a core
team comprising Jamed Falik, Rajul Pandya-Lorch, Katrin Park, Pamela Stedman-Edwards, Klaus von Grebmer,
Sivan Yosef, and Laura Zseleczky.
Text and data contributions were made by Fatma Abdelaziz, Akhter Ahmed, Kamiljon Akramov, Luz Marina
Alvare, Suresh Babu, Ousmane Badiane, Nienke Beintema, Jill Bernstein, Clemens Breisinger, Kevin Chen,
Julia Collins, Stephen Davies, David Dawe, Eugenio Díaz-Bonilla, Paul Dorosh, James Garrett, Stuart Gillespie,
José Graziano da Silva, Jody Harris, Corinna Hawkes, Jarilkasin Ilyasov, Michael Johnson, P. K. Joshi, Nadim
Khouri, Anjani Kumar, Tsitsi Makombe, Bart Minten, Alejandro Nin-Pratt, Allen Park, Nilam Prasai, Thomas
Reardon, Danielle Resnick, Mark Rosegrant, Christopher Rue, Marie Ruel, Timothy Sulser, Timothy Thomas,
Peter Timmer, Máximo Torero, Keith Wiebe, Indira Yerramareddy, and Sivan Yosef.
Production of the report was led by Jamed Falik, David Popham, and Pamela Stedman-Edwards. Team
members include Aliana Bailey, Melissa Cooperman, Michael Go, James Sample, and Caroline Smith. Editorial
assistance was provided by Amy Gautam and Tracy Brown.
The report underwent a peer review by IFPRI’s Publications Review Committee, chaired by Gershon Feder.
5
The year 2016 saw important signs of resolve and com-
mitments to sustainable development and food secu-
rity. Yet the year also witnessed growing uncertainties
linked to stagnant growth in the global economy, growing
income inequalities everywhere, worsening refugee crises,
increased polarization and populism among major donor
countries, and rapid changes in the political landscape.
These uncertainties and persistent challenges will prove to
be a major test of whether the momentum created will pro-
pel the new sustainable development agenda forward and
whether action will be taken to improve the lives of millions
of people who continue to lack the most basic necessities—
namely, food, shelter, and security.
LOOKING BACK AT 2016: A GLIMMER OF HOPE
Despite experiencing a sixth year of global economic
stagnation in 2016, some positive signs emerged of bet-
ter things to come. Take poverty, for example. World Bank
projections suggest that for the first time in history, the
number of people living in extreme poverty fell below
10 percent of the global While the rates may
have fallen, the numbers of extremely poor people in the
world remain too high—hundreds of millions of people still
live on less than US$ a day (the current benchmark for
extreme poverty).
Global hunger rates are also expected to have fallen
in 2016, with less than 11 percent of the world suffering
from undernourishment—a drop from 19 percent in
Advancements were made in countries such as Bangladesh,
which cut hunger from 33 percent to 16 percent between
the periods 1990–1992 and 2014–2016. Ethiopia made even
more dramatic progress, reducing hunger from 75 percent
to 32 percent over the same time frame. Among other
broad strategies and programs to reduce hunger and mal-
nutrition, efforts to improve crop production and diver-
sification coincided with the improvements seen in these
Along with Bangladesh and Ethiopia, many
other countries also witnessed significant reductions in
undernutrition, particularly in child stunting—a condition
of low height-for-age that is irreversible and associated
with impaired physical and cognitive ability. To take one
research result released in 2016, Peru rapidly reduced child
stunting from 28 percent to 18 percent in just four years
(2008–2012), a remarkable sign of progress that included
the poor and reached all of Peru’s diverse
Global food prices fell for the fifth straight year in
2016 due to increased supply, according to the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The
FAO’s December 2016 Crop Prospects and Food Situation
report forecast world cereal production of 2,578 million
metric tons for 2016, percent above 2015 cereal
Chapter 1
FOOD POLICY IN 2016–2017
Food Security and Nutrition
in an Urbanizing World
SheNGGeN FaN
Shenggen Fan is director general, International Food Policy Research Institute,
Washington, DC, USA.
6 FFod Security aod aciurirFa ra a cur arirang Furod
This gain is driven mainly by maize and wheat.
Global rice production for 2016 could reach an
all-time high of million metric tons, marking
the first expansion in global rice production since
2013. Rice production in Asia recovered toward the
end of 2016 following the dissipation of the El Niño
cycle, with yields increasing to million met-
ric tons. These gains imply that many of the poorest,
who spend a larger share of their income on food
purchases, were able to experience some improve-
ment in their food security and poverty status.
Along with improvements in poverty and hun-
ger reduction, major global policy developments in
2016 helped to maintain or build momentum toward
improving human and environmental well-being. In
2016, implementation of the United Nations’ 2030
Agenda for Sustainable Development—anchored by
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)—began
with a number of key actions taken as the world
geared up to deliver on the ambitious agenda for
eliminating hunger and poverty worldwide. Among
these, a coalition of more than 60 governments, rep-
resenting both developed and developing countries,
committed to a record US$75 billion replenishment
for the International Development Association, the
World Bank’s fund for the poorest countries.
The United Nations endorsed the Second
International Conference on Nutrition (ICN2)
Framework for Action and declared 2016 to 2025
a Decade of Action on Nutrition to reduce hunger
and malnutrition and meet the SDGs. The Decade of
Action aims to provide an umbrella for a wide group
of actors to work together to make progress toward
SDG 2 to end hunger and malnutrition in all its
forms. While nutrition continues to be an important
development issue at the global level, the challenge
of translating commitment into action for acceler-
ated progress remains.
A critical global development in 2016 emerged
from the 2015 United Nations Climate Change
Conference (COP21). The Paris Agreement—which
addresses greenhouse gas emissions mitigation,
adaptation, and finance beginning in the year 2020—
was ratified by 126 countries and entered into force
in November These commitments to climate
action are critical for food security and nutrition,
given the ways in which agriculture is both affected
by and contributes to climate change. Furthermore,
COP22 in 2016 galvanized the launch of related
This chapter benefited from research and writing assistance from
Michael Johnson and Christopher Rue.
FFod PFrrety ra 2016–2017 7
efforts such as the initiative for the Adaptation of
African Agriculture, which aims to reduce the vulner-
ability of Africa and its agriculture to climate change.
Urbanization was elevated in the global devel-
opment policy agenda in 2016, most prominently
through 167 countries’ adoption of the New Urban
Agenda at the Habitat III summit. The agenda sets a
standard for sustainable urban development, includ-
ing the provision of basic services for all, strength-
ened resilience in cities, reductions in greenhouse
gas emissions, and promotion of greener cities. Also
in 2016, 132 mayors around the world signed the
Milan Urban Food Policy Pact, committing to devel-
oping sustainable, inclusive, and resilient food sys-
tems. Moreover, the Open Cities initiative in South
Asia, one of the most rapidly urbanizing regions of
the world, began operating in three cities (Colombo,
Dhaka, and Kathmandu) to leverage community map-
ping and open data to promote sustainable develop-
ment and disaster preparedness and resilience.
Other developments emerging from international
forums and regional development groups in 2016
were also encouraging. For example, the Group of
Seven (G7) reaffirmed its commitment to prioritizing
nutrition and helping 500 million people in develop-
ing countries move out of hunger and malnutrition
by 2030. The larger Group of Twenty (G20) high-
lighted the importance of agricultural innovation—
in institutions, policies, science, and technology—to
achieve sustainable development. Among regional
development groups, the African Development
Bank Group launched its 2016–2025 Strategy for
Agricultural Transformation, committing to end
extreme poverty, hunger, and malnutrition by 2025.
And at the African Green Revolution Forum, African
leaders, businesses, and major donors pledged
more than US$30 billion for African agriculture to
increase production, income, and employment for
smallholder farmers and local African agriculture
businesses over the next 10 years.
Along with global and regional policy develop-
ments, individual countries initiated significant food
security and nutrition policy changes in 2016. The US
Global Food Security Act was passed by Congress,
which will help support the SDGs. France enacted
anti–food waste actions and passed a law requir-
ing supermarkets to donate unsold food. China
announced investments in agriculture of about
US$450 billion in an effort to increase farm produc-
tivity and improve rural incomes, and also outlined
plans to reduce its citizens’ meat consumption by
50 percent by 2030. Malawi launched a new National
Agricultural Policy to improve incomes, food secu-
rity, and nutrition. The Philippines finalized long-term
development plans that include efforts to reduce
poverty and to reach self-sufficiency in rice—the latter
a policy with potential India continued
to expand implementation of its 2013 Food Security
Law, aiming to allocate subsidized food grains to
800 million people across India’s 36 states.
Behind these positive signs, concerning devel-
opments in 2016 revealed the persistence of hun-
ger and malnutrition in some parts of the world.
In West Africa, 10 million people experienced crit-
ical levels of food insecurity in The 2015–
2016 El Niño weather event caused poor harvests in
many countries around the world, affecting a pro-
jected 41 million people in southern Africa, of whom
28 million were in need of immediate humanitar-
ian In Yemen, almost half the popula-
tion (14 million of million) faced high levels of
food insecurity driven primarily by conflict, and in
war-torn Syria roughly 4 to 5 million displaced peo-
ple required urgent food aid throughout the
While it is encouraging that humanitarian aid sup-
ports many people in acute critical need, vulnerabil-
ity to chronic food insecurity remains a concern.
LOOKING FORWARD TO 2017:
GREAT UNCERTAINTIES DESPITE
A STRONG RESOLVE
The resolve and commitments to sustainable devel-
opment and food security that marked 2016 are
being tested as we look forward to 2017. Of partic-
ular concern are the uncertain prospects for eco-
nomic growth and changing political paradigms in
developed and developing countries alike, which are
creating an uncertain outlook for the global devel-
opment landscape.
Current forecasts of global economic growth
for 2017 are slightly positive: after low growth of
percent in 2016, growth in 2017 is expected to
rise to Prospects for growth differ
sharply across countries and regions, with emerg-
ing economies in Asia showing robust growth, while
Africa south of the Sahara experiences a
The projected slowdown threatens to reverse the
gains achieved in reducing poverty and food inse-
curity in Africa. In Nigeria, lower oil prices combined
8 FFod Security aod aciurirFa ra a cur arirang Furod
with the effects of currency depreciation and conflict
elevate the risk of severe food insecurity. Relatedly,
staple food prices in Nigeria were expected to have
risen above both 2015 prices and the five-year aver-
age by September
Expected political changes around the world
in 2017 contribute to the uncertain economic out-
look. For example, several countries in Africa south
of the Sahara will transition to new political leader-
ship. A new administration in Ghana will transition
into power and is expected to address the coun-
try’s slowing economic growth. In the Democratic
Republic of the Congo, a transitional government
is supposed to be formed in advance of elec-
tions slated to be held by the end of 2017. In Latin
America, political uncertainties in countries such
as Brazil and Venezuela put a question mark on
economic and social stability going forward, with
implications for development and foreign direct
investment. New political regimes in Asia, such as
in the Philippines, have bucked convention with
new or different approaches to trade and develop-
ment. Political changes in the more advanced econ-
omies are also adding to the growing uncertainties.
Threats of greater isolationism could further slow
global trade and economic growth. As a result, the
subdued economic outlooks for 2017 may further
support the uptick in anti-integration movements
among other advanced economies. Overall, the
implications of these political changes for domestic
and global growth, food policy, trade, and invest-
ments in food security and nutrition are unclear.
Rising within-country income inequality during
the period of rapid globalization, as well as stag-
nant real median wages, fuels policy uncertainty
around global trade and immigration in advanced
Indeed, within-country inequality is
higher now than it was 25 years ago, and the share of
income going to the top 1 percent has increased in
many countries over the last few decades. The issue
of inequality will likely remain a focus in 2017 given
its political and social implications.
Together with economic and political changes,
ongoing conflicts will continue to exacerbate hunger
and malnutrition in affected regions. Conflict dis-
placed up to million people in 2015 alone, and
forced displacement has been on the rise since the
It appears unlikely that these figures will
drastically diminish in 2017.
URBANIZATION IN THE SPOTLIGHT
Rapid urbanization, particularly in developing coun-
tries, is a critical ongoing trend shaping food secu-
rity and nutrition that will continue in 2017 and
beyond (Figure 1). Nearly 90 percent of the pro-
jected urban population increase is concentrated
in Africa and Asia, with China, India, and Nigeria
alone expected to add 900 million urban residents
by How the expansion of urban areas is
Figure 1 Growth of urban population in major developing regions
1950 1970 1990 2015
P
o
p
u
la
ti
o
n
in
b
il
li
o
n
s
Middle East and North Africa
Africa south of the Sahara
Central Asia
South Asia
East Asia
Latin America and the Caribbean
Rest of the world
Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAOSTAT (2016),
FFod PFrrety ra 2016–2017 9
UN ADOPTS
COMMITMENT ON
REFUGEES
UN General Assembly
member states adopt the
New York declaration, a set
of nonbinding commitments
to address the refugee
and migrant crisis.
GLOBAL
NUTRITION
SUMMIT MEETS
On the eve of the Summer
Olympic Games in Rio, the
Nutrition for Growth
summit calls for world
leaders to increase
investments in nutrition
and scale up successful
strategies.
BRITAIN VOTES
TO LEAVE THE
EUROPEAN UNION
“Brexit” could affect
Britain’s food security
and spending on official
development assistance,
as well as the global
economy and trade.
RECORD NUMBERS
OF REFUGEES
UNHCR reports that
65 million people were
displaced in 2015, exceeding
the 60 million mark for the
first time in history.
UN DECLARES
DECADE OF ACTION
ON NUTRITION
The UN declares a Decade
of Action on Nutrition from
2016 to 2025 to support
efforts to eliminate hunger
and malnutrition and meet
Agenda 2030 goals.
WORST DROUGHT IN
DECADES IN AFRICA
An unusually strong El Niño
causes the worst drought in
decades, leaving over 36
million people in southern and
eastern Africa facing hunger.
PULSES CELEBRATED
GLOBALLY
The UN declares 2016 the
“International Year of Pulses”
to highlight the nutrition and
sustainability benefits of the
hearty, high-protein crops.
OPEN DATA FOR
AGRICULTURE AND
NUTRITION
The first-ever GODAN
(Global Open Data for
Agriculture and Nutrition)
Summit launches a data
revolution, calling on public
and private organizations
to open their data on
agricultural research.
POSSIBLE MERGERS
Proposed mergers of
major seed and agrochemical
companies face scrutiny—
if approved, 80 percent of the
US corn-seed market and 70
percent of the world’s pesticide
market would be controlled
by three companies.
HURRICANE
HITS HAITI
Hurricane Matthew wipes out
large agricultural areas on the
island, leaving million people
in need of food assistance.
NEW URBAN AGENDA
ADOPTED
Agenda adopted at Habitat III
in Quito, Ecuador, aims to
improve how cities are planned,
managed, and inhabited to set
the world on a course toward
sustainable urban development.
US PRESIDENTIAL
ELECTION
President-elect Donald
Trump’s policies expected
to have implications for global
development issues including
trade, refugees, climate
change, and US foreign aid.
COP22 IN
MARRAKECH
Marrakech Climate
Change Conference
(COP 22) marks the Paris
Agreement’s entry into force.
FOOD SYSTEMS FOR
HEALTHY DIETS
International Symposium
on Sustainable Food Systems
for Healthy Diets and Improved
Nutrition focuses on concrete
country experiences and
challenges shaping food
systems to deliver healthy diets.
US GLOBAL FOOD
SECURITY ACT SIGNED
The United States passes
a law to promote global
food security, resilience,
and nutrition.
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
UN ADOPTS
COMMITMENT ON
REFUGEES
UN General Assembly
member states adopt the
New York declaration, a set
of nonbinding commitments
to address the refugee
and migrant crisis.
GLOBAL
NUTRITION
SUMMIT MEETS
On the eve of the Summer
Olympic Games in Rio, the
Nutrition for Growth
summit calls for world
leaders to increase
investments in nutrition
and scale up successful
strategies.
BRITAIN VOTES
TO LEAVE THE
EUROPEAN UNION
“Brexit” could affect
Britain’s food security
and spending on official
development assistance,
as well as the global
economy and trade.
RECORD NUMBERS
OF REFUGEES
UNHCR reports that
65 million people were
displaced in 2015, exceeding
the 60 million mark for the
first time in history.
UN DECLARES
DECADE OF ACTION
ON NUTRITION
The UN declares a Decade
of Action on Nutrition from
2016 to 2025 to support
efforts to eliminate hunger
and malnutrition and meet
Agenda 2030 goals.
WORST DROUGHT IN
DECADES IN AFRICA
An unusually strong El Niño
causes the worst drought in
decades, leaving over 36
million people in southern and
eastern Africa facing hunger.
PULSES CELEBRATED
GLOBALLY
The UN declares 2016 the
“International Year of Pulses”
to highlight the nutrition and
sustainability benefits of the
hearty, high-protein crops.
OPEN DATA FOR
AGRICULTURE AND
NUTRITION
The first-ever GODAN
(Global Open Data for
Agriculture and Nutrition)
Summit launches a data
revolution, calling on public
and private organizations
to open their data on
agricultural research.
POSSIBLE MERGERS
Proposed mergers of
major seed and agrochemical
companies face scrutiny—
if approved, 80 percent of the
US corn-seed market and 70
percent of the world’s pesticide
market would be controlled
by three companies.
HURRICANE
HITS HAITI
Hurricane Matthew wipes out
large agricultural areas on the
island, leaving million people
in need of food assistance.
NEW URBAN AGENDA
ADOPTED
Agenda adopted at Habitat III
in Quito, Ecuador, aims to
improve how cities are planned,
managed, and inhabited to set
the world on a course toward
sustainable urban development.
US PRESIDENTIAL
ELECTION
President-elect Donald
Trump’s policies expected
to have implications for global
development issues including
trade, refugees, climate
change, and US foreign aid.
COP22 IN
MARRAKECH
Marrakech Climate
Change Conference
(COP 22) marks the Paris
Agreement’s entry into force.
FOOD SYSTEMS FOR
HEALTHY DIETS
International Symposium
on Sustainable Food Systems
for Healthy Diets and Improved
Nutrition focuses on concrete
country experiences and
challenges shaping food
systems to deliver healthy diets.
US GLOBAL FOOD
SECURITY ACT SIGNED
The United States passes
a law to promote global
food security, resilience,
and nutrition.
JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC
FOOD POLICIES
HUNGER & UNDERNUTRITION
Source: The survey was conducted online, from January 12–26, 2017.
60%
60%
URBANIZATION & FOOD SECURITY
STAKEHOLDER PERSPECTIVES REGIONAL PERSPECTIVES
0
20
10
30
40
50
60
80
90
70
PacificAfrica Asia Europe LAC MENA North America
73%
are dissatisfied
with global
food policies
36%
8%
of respondents think global
hunger and undernutrition
can be eliminated by 2025.
think global hunger and
undernutrition will
be eliminated by 2025.
46%
20%
of respondents think hunger and
undernutrition can be eliminated
by 2025 in their own countries.
think hunger and undernutrition
will be eliminated by 2025 in
their own countries.
are dissatisfied with
food policies in
their own countries
are dissatisfied
with progress in
global food and
nutrition security
are dissatisfied
with progress in
food and nutrition
security in their
own countries
NGO
0
20
10
30
40
50
60
70
Academia/
University
Government/
Policy maker
Donor Farmer/ Farmer
organization
Business Other
66% of respondents think the expansion of cities and urban populations will make it harder to ensure that everyone gets enough nutritious food
to eat.
Over 1,300 individuals representing more than 100 countries
responded to the 2017 Global Food Policy Report survey on perceptions
about food policy and food security now and for the future, and on the
impacts of urbanization.
73%
of respondents think policies and investments are supporting
development of links that bring food products from rural producers to
urban consumers.
61%
Satisfied with progress in
global food and nutrition security
Think hunger and undernutrition can
be eliminated globally by 2025
Think hunger and undernutrition will
be eliminated globally by 2025
Satisfied with global food policies
Satisfied with progress in food and
nutrition security in their country
Think hunger and undernutrition can
be eliminated in their country by 2025
Think hunger and undernutrition will
be eliminated in their country by 2025
Satisfied with food policies
in their country
managed in future years will be critical for ensuring
agricultural growth and global food security.
Rapid urbanization and population growth are
expected to put growing pressure on the global food
system as agricultural production comes under stress
from environmental degradation, climate change,
extreme weather conditions, and limited virgin lands
for expansion. Furthermore, as urbanization has
accelerated in some developing countries, so has the
triple burden of malnutrition—the coexistence of hun-
ger (insufficient caloric intake to meet dietary energy
requirements), undernutrition (prolonged inade-
quate intake of macro- and micronutrients), and over-
nutrition in the form of overweight and
The good news is that the world is paying atten-
tion. By building momentum through global initia-
tives such as the Habitat III summit and the Milan
Urban Food Policy Pact, the global development
community appears ready to take action.
Difficulty in improving food security and nutrition in
both rural and urban areas in developing countries can
be traced to weak linkages between agricultural pro-
ducers, and particularly smallholders, in rural areas and
urban consumers. Urbanization can be a boon to rural
producers who could more effectively supply urban
areas with nutritious foods while benefiting from larger,
generally more wealthy urban markets. Chapter 2 dis-
cusses how enhancing rural-urban linkages—through
improving policy coordination, strengthening value
chains, leveraging intermediate cities, making critical
investments in non-urban areas, and promoting pro-
ductive social protection—can help end hunger and
malnutrition for rural and urban dwellers.
As urban populations grow, poverty, food inse-
curity, and malnutrition are increasingly becoming
urban problems in all regions of the world. The state
of food security and nutrition in the world’s growing
cities is discussed in Chapter 3. Poor urban dwellers
face unique nutritional challenges around accessing
nutritious food, adequate employment, social pro-
tection, and adequate water, sanitation, and hygiene
facilities, all of which affect food security and nutri-
tion. The chapter highlights the need for more data
and research to better understand and characterize
the challenges and opportunities faced by the urban
poor and to guide the design of effective policies
and programs to support them.
Urbanization is playing a role in a larger global
trend—whereby consumption of coarse grains, sta-
ple cereals, and pulses is replaced by increased
consumption of animal-source foods, sugar, fats and
oils, refined grains, and processed foods. This “nutri-
tion transition” is causing increases in overweight and
obesity and diet-related diseases such as diabetes
and heart disease. Chapter 4 unpacks the nutrition
transition, and considers how to use policy to create
an enabling environment for good nutrition.
In many developing countries, a “quiet revolu-
tion” is affecting staple food value chains. Increased
commercial flows of agricultural goods, diet trans-
formation, and the large role of commercial mar-
kets in meeting urban food demand all contribute
to these evolving value chains. The growing use of
modern inputs, information and communication
technologies, and midstream sections of the value
chain figure in this transformation. Chapter 5 dis-
cusses lessons learned and opportunities for cities
to continue to serve as engines of growth for agricul-
tural and food system transformation.
While urbanization is happening almost every-
where, the ongoing process in Africa south of the
Sahara comes with unique implications for gover-
nance and food security. In particular, large urban
poor populations in the region rely heavily on the
informal economy for accessible, affordable food.
Informal markets find themselves at odds with gov-
ernment interventions that typically focus on con-
trol, regulation, and often violent eradication of the
urban informal food economy. Chapter 6 discusses
the unique institutional, administrative, and political
challenges for achieving food security in the region,
and offers policy suggestions for a way forward.
The review of Regional Developments in food
policy takes a brief look at the particular challenges
of urbanization and the food and agricultural econ-
omy in each of the developing regions.
Together these chapters provide an overview
of what we know about urbanization, food secu-
rity, and nutrition and point to some of the most
urgent research and data needs. They also point
to promising policy directions that could begin to
strengthen linkages between rural and urban areas
and contribute to food security and access to nutri-
tious foods in the world’s expanding urban areas.
Addressing the needs of growing ranks of urban
dwellers and improving the livelihoods of small-
holder producers while promoting agricultural pro-
ductivity will be essential to global food security
and nutrition and to moving ahead with the new
sustainable development agenda.
FFod PFrrety ra 2016–2017 13
KEY MESSAGES
■ Rural-urban linkages—including physical, economic,
social, and political connections—are crucial for end-
ing hunger and malnutrition (SDG 2) sustainably in both
rural and urban areas. Rural-urban linkages also support
other Sustainable Development Goals.
■ Urban growth increases food demand and spurs dietary
changes in urban areas—new demand can create oppor-
tunities for rural producers to improve their livelihoods.
■ Broken value chains and poor coordination weaken
rural-urban links and hold back progress on food secu-
rity and nutrition.
■ Investment in rural infrastructure and intermediate
towns—quality rural and feeder roads, electricity, storage
facilities, communications and information—can build
connections and create hubs of economic activity bene-
fiting smallholders and cities.
POLICY AND RESEARCH NEEDS
■ What policies and investments can best develop
rural-urban linkages that benefit both smallholders and
other rural residents and support rural and urban food
security and nutrition?
■ How can policy coordination between rural and urban
areas help create efficient and inclusive value chains
and governance of natural resources needed for agricul-
tural production?
■ How can small- and medium-sized towns best be lever-
aged to link rural and urban areas?
■ How can public investment best be targeted to develop
rural farm and nonfarm sectors and thus reduce
rural and urban poverty, increase productivity, and
improve resilience?
■ What policies and programs on social protection
can improve household-level resilience in rural and
urban areas?
CHAPtER 2
SMALLHOLDERS AND URBANIZATION
Strengthening Rural-Urban Linkages
to End Hunger and Malnutrition
JOSÉ GRAZIANO DA SILVA AND SHENGGEN FAN
José Graziano da Silva is director-general of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome, Italy. Shenggen Fan is director general of the International Food
Policy Research Institute, Washington, DC, USA.
14 StrenStrenen tRtra-Rtrre anenrnr Sto rend tRenrt rend raeRStnSntoe
The world is increasingly urban. Over half the
global population lives in cities, and many more
will join them: by 2050, 66 percent of the popu-
lation is projected to live in urban areas. Nearly
all of the increase will occur in developing coun-
tries, where some of the world’s largest cities are
already found.
Urbanization is reshaping the landscape within
which we must pursue the Sustainable Development
Goals (SDGs) of ending hunger, achieving food secu-
rity and improved nutrition, and promoting sustain-
able agriculture. For both rural and urban areas,
rapid urbanization brings profound challenges and
opportunities for meeting these goals.
ENHANCED RURAL-URBAN
LINKAGES TO ACHIEVE SDGS
Enhancing linkages between rural and urban areas
is one of the keys to achieving the SDGs. Rural-urban
linkages are the physical, economic, social, and polit-
ical connections that link the most remote areas to
the densest megacities, often through smaller towns
and cities in between. These connections allow for
flows of goods, people, social relations, information,
finance, and waste across space, and also promote
links across sectors, such as agriculture, services,
and manufacturing.
Strong rural-urban linkages help propel eco-
nomic development and improvements in food
security and nutrition. When linkages are strength-
ened, farmers sell increasing shares of their produce
in urban markets. Laborers commute or migrate
to nearby towns for seasonal work, but may keep
strong ties with their family networks in rural areas
through remittances. Businesses in towns, inter-
mediate cities, and large urban areas benefit from
demand for food and nonfood items and from the
supply of agricultural raw materials from rural
And urban businesses provide technical assis-
tance, credit, and consumer demand information to
small-scale farms in rural areas (Figure 1). However,
where links between rural and urban spaces are bro-
ken or weak, both rural and urban areas suffer.
While the majority of the world’s poor and hun-
gry currently live in rural spaces, hundreds of mil-
lions of poor and hungry people live in cities. With
This chapter benefited from research and writing assistance
from FAO staff, Andrea Cattaneo, Panagiotis Karfakis, Kostas
Stamoulis, and Rob Vos; and from IFPRI staff, Emily Eun Young
Cho, Tolulope Olofinbiyi, and Christopher Rue.
raattoandrt rend RtrrenzrSntoe 15
accelerating urbanization, particularly in low-income
countries, these numbers may increase if left unad-
dressed. At the same time, changing dietary and life-
style patterns associated with income growth and
urbanization lead to malnutrition in the form of over-
weight and In rapidly urbanizing developing
countries, multiple burdens of malnutrition—over-
weight and obesity alongside persistent hunger and
undernutrition—are becoming increasingly
Urbanization is transforming rural landscapes.
Rising urban demand for more and better food can
provide opportunities to increase and diversify food
production in rural areas, thus improving farmers’
However, rapid urbanization can also
add stress to agricultural systems through resource
allocation away from agriculture, environmen-
tal degradation, migration of young farmers, and
other For these reasons, urbanization
has major implications for food policy and needs
greater attention from policy makers, practitioners,
and researchers.
Enhancing rural-urban linkages will be critical for
making food systems more effective and inclusive.
Doing so would also contribute to achieving multi-
ple SDGs—especially ending poverty, hunger, and
all forms of malnutrition (Table 1).6 The New Urban
Agenda, agreed on by UN member states at the
2016 Habitat III conference in Quito, Ecuador, pro-
vides a framework for addressing the challenges of
urbanization while contributing to the eradication of
hunger and malnutrition and achieving other SDGs.
This will not be possible, however, if we focus strictly
on urban areas. It will require harnessing the syner-
gies between rural and urban spaces through strong
physical, political, and market linkages.
WEAK LINKS BETWEEN RURAL
AND URBAN AREAS
Urbanization poses challenges to sustainably achiev-
ing food security and nutrition. Weak rural-urban
linkages and unsustainable use of natural resources
exacerbate these challenges, and can hold
back progress.
BROKEN VALUE CHAINS
Food value chains encompass all actors and activ-
ities involved in the food supply chain, and include
inputs and production, storage, processing, distribu-
tion, transport, retail, and For exam-
ple, value chains can bring food produced by rural
smallholders to urban consumers and inputs pro-
duced in cities or towns to smallholders. However,
weak links along the value chain may disrupt this
flow. A lack of inputs—such as seeds and fertilizers—
or physical and financial impediments to accessing
inputs faced by smallholders can weaken the value
chain upstream. A lack of processing, milling, cold
Figure 1 Food from small farms to big cities
SUPPLY CHAIN ACTIVITIES AND ACTORS
RURAL-URBAN CONTINUUM
FOOD-SECTOR FLOWS
Consumption
Households
Retailing and promotion
Informal retailers,
supermarkets, restaurants,
fast-food companies
Distribution and
transport
Importers, exporters
brokers, wholesalers
Storage and
processing
Packers, millers,
traders, refiners
Production
Smallholders,
agricultural laborers,
commodity producers
Very rural Rural Small towns Intermediate cities Peri-urban Very urban
• Food and agricultural products • Natural resources • Finance and insurance
• Inputs (., seeds, equipment) • Labor and remittances • Information • Waste
Source: Adapted from J. von Braun, “Rural-Urban Linkages for Growth, Employment, and Poverty Reduction,” presented at the Fifth Inter-
national Conference on the Ethiopian Economy, Ethiopian Economics Association, Addis Ababa, June 7–9, 2007.
16 StrenStrenen tRtra-Rtrre anenrnr Sto rend tRenrt rend raeRStnSntoe
Table 1 How strengthening rural-urban linkages can help to achieve improved food systems and multiple SDGs
Activities for enhancing
rural-urban linkages
Benefits to food systems and residents in
SDGs supported*
Rural areas Urban areas
1 2 3 8 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17
Investing in rural feeder
roads and cooled
transportation1
Connects smallholders to
input and output markets,
generates employment,
improves incomes and
value-added, and diversi-
fies food production and
diets
Improves availability and
accessibility of staples,
high-value foods, and
other agricultural prod-
ucts, and generates non-
farm employment and
incomes
• • • •
Establishing
processing centers and
storage facilities2
Increases value-added of
agricultural products and
incomes, spurs employ-
ment, and reduces food
losses
Improves availability
of diverse foods and
increases incomes • • • • • • •
Using information
and communications
technologies (such as
mobile phones) to link
farmers to processors,
retailers, and consumers3
Improves market partici-
pation, incomes, and liveli-
hoods of smallholders
Improves availability of
diverse foods
• • • •
Facilitating in-country
movement of people
while providing assistance
to people who move
to cities4
Allows rural workers to mit-
igate income risk through
migrant work and remit-
tances, improving income
and livelihoods
Improves food security
and nutrition through
social safety nets and
rural-to-urban food and
cash transfers
• • • • •
Improving coordination
and planning between rural
and urban areas, espe-
cially as related to food and
agriculture5
Opens labor opportu-
nities and markets for
smallholders
Helps manage land use
and reduces food insecu-
rity and malnutrition • • • • • • • • • • •
Leveraging small- and
medium-sized cities as key
nodes to link smallholders
to big cities6
Allows for growth in scale
of markets (such as pro-
cessing, cold storage) and
improves access to input,
output, and credit markets
and can dynamize employ-
ment generation
Increases food access,
consistency, and quality
and dynamizes employ-
ment generation • • • • •
*SDGs supported by enhancing rural urban linkages
raattoandrt rend RtrrenzrSntoe 17
storage, and transportation can sever value chains
midstream. Poor transportation infrastructure can
make it too costly for smallholders to sell their pro-
duce downstream to urban consumers and can con-
tribute to greater food losses and waste. Strong
value chains are important for improving livelihoods,
food security, and
Weak links in the rice value chain in Nigeria pro-
vide an example. Rice has become one of Nigeria’s
most-consumed staples, and the country has made
boosting rice production a Yet 60 percent
of rice purchased in urban areas is imported
because of consumer concerns about locally pro-
duced rice. These concerns include inconsisten-
cies in quality, labeling, and taste—problems that
arise from poor vertical integration in the domestic
rice value For rice, postharvest processing
(milling, parboiling, and cleaning) and marketing
(weighing, bagging, and branding) play key roles.
Yet with a highly fragmented domestic value chain,
the many small- and medium-sized rice millers that
process 80 percent of Nigerian rice have varied
skills and degrees of access to services and infor-
mation, and little scope for upgrading varieties
or technologies.
The result is wide variation in the quality of the
final product in Nigeria, including unfavorable prop-
erties such as discoloration and the presence of
stones. Lack of traceability along the value chain
leads to inconsistencies between variety names and
the final product, preventing a link between produc-
tion and consumer preferences. That consumers pre-
fer the quality, taste, and texture of imported rice
over domestic rice—in large part due to the broken
rice value chain—is not surprising.
POOR COORDINATION ACROSS LOCALES
Although rural and urban areas are interdepen-
dent, they are often governed by distinct local enti-
ties. When faced with problems of achieving food
security and nutrition for their constituents, pol-
icy makers may look for solutions solely within their
own locales, without recognizing the potential of
rural-urban linkages. For example, urban policy
makers often turn to urban agriculture to address
food insecurity, despite little evidence that urban
agriculture alone can substantially reduce urban
food insecurity or Rural policy mak-
ers may not consider how rural households bene-
fit from connections to urban areas as a means of
diversifying income sources, such as the poten-
tial of remittances from seasonal or permanent
migrants to urban
Lack of shared governance of natural resources
tends to weaken links between rural and urban
areas. With existing predominant production meth-
ods, rising food demand will increase pressures on
natural resources and the environment. These pres-
sures will be exacerbated by shifts in land use for
livestock production (including in peri-urban areas)
that are associated with changing dietary
Lack of land use planning and proper regulation of
land tenure will also affect development of urban
and peri-urban agriculture. Urban sprawl will affect
food security and natural resource availability in
places where it causes significant loss of productive
peri-urban agricultural land and contributes to deg-
radation of environmental The expected
increases in the urban population in the develop-
ing world will be accompanied by a tripling in the
built-up area of cities—from 200,000 to 600,000
square kilometers between 2000 and The
way in which cities are built up will have major impli-
cations for establishing connectivity and securing
adequate rural-urban linkages.
A lack of shared governance of food security
and nutrition and shared management of natu-
ral resources may arise from misperceptions about
rural and urban areas. Urban food insecurity and
malnutrition have been overlooked in low- and
middle-income countries—hunger and malnutrition
have typically been considered rural On
the other hand, a disproportionate focus on urban
areas can bring about an “urban bias” against agri-
culture and the rural economy in the allocation of
development resources and prioritization of policies
to address
LACK OF INVESTMENT IN RURAL AND NON-URBAN
INFRASTRUCTURE
Rural infrastructure, including quality rural and
feeder roads, electricity, and storage facilities, is
essential for pro-poor growth, agricultural devel-
opment, and improved Inadequate
rural infrastructure leads to isolation of communi-
ties and is significantly associated with poverty and
poor Weak transport infrastructure is a
major constraint in many countries in Africa south of
the Sahara, despite the potential for rural roads to
pave the way for other investments that can improve
18 StrenStrenen tRtra-Rtrre anenrnr Sto rend tRenrt rend raeRStnSntoe
nutrition—such as schools, health services, and secu-
rity Lack of paved roads and electricity
also contributes to postharvest food losses along the
value
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)
illustrates the importance of infrastructure for eco-
nomic and agricultural development. The economic
potential of agriculture in the DRC is handicapped
by dilapidated transport Access to mar-
kets there is among the weakest in Africa. Poor mar-
ket access raises costs and reduces the scope for
profitable trade and on-farm investments. Long
travel times related to poor infrastructure contrib-
ute substantially to Congolese poverty. Investment
in infrastructure is clearly needed, but it is import-
ant to note that the type of infrastructure matters.
Research suggests that city access combined with
access to ports is more beneficial than city access
Investments along the continuum between rural
and urban—in small towns and medium-sized cit-
ies that constitute the hidden (and sometimes non-
existent) geographic middle—can play a key role.
Rural townships and medium-sized cities can serve
as important intermediary points to connect hinter-
lands to urban centers while providing social and
economic They can act as service delivery
nodes for rural areas and link the rural economy to
markets, thereby reducing transaction and transpor-
tation costs. Towns and intermediate cities can also
foster nonfarm rural growth, affording smallholders
access to employment in agroprocessing or other
commercial or industrial activities.
UNDESIRABLE CHANGES IN FOOD CONSUMPTION
PATTERNS
Urbanization and higher urban incomes are asso-
ciated with a broad dietary transition marked by
increased demand for animal-sourced food, fats
and oils, refined grains, and fruits and vegetables.
Production of these foods is more intensive in the use
of land, water, inputs, and energy, tends to generate
more greenhouse gas emissions, and increases pres-
sures on natural resources. Consumers with higher
urban wages and urban lifestyles also tend to favor
processed and prepared food products, such as fast
food, store-bought convenience foods, and foods
prepared and marketed by street vendors. With these
changes, the nutrient content of diets is changing.
Typically, diets are becoming more energy-dense and
are characterized by higher intake of salt, fats and oils,
and sugar, a pattern that leads to an increase in over-
weight and obesity as well as diet-related
Despite these trends, strong rural-urban link-
ages can help to achieve food security and improved
nutrition in the context of rapid urbanization. They
can reduce the price of healthy foods, such as fresh
fruit and vegetables, in urban markets through
improved transport or This can contrib-
ute to a healthier diet in urban populations, particu-
larly for the poor, who are often limited to cheaper,
unhealthy, and less nutritious diet options. Greater
affordability and availability of healthy food options
can also help address the challenge of rising obesity
in rapidly urbanizing areas. The existence and qual-
ity of these linkages, as well as the extent to which
they are inclusive of poor and vulnerable popula-
tions, are key for all rural and urban residents to ben-
efit from rapid urbanization.
DO EXPERIENCES SO FAR PROVIDE
INSIGHTS FOR PROGRESS?
Three case studies illustrate how enhanced
rural-urban linkages can play a critical role in helping
countries improve food security and nutrition.
CASE 1: IMPROVED INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE RED RIVER
DELTA IN VIET NAM
Rising food demand and dietary shifts resulting
from rapid urbanization provide well-linked rural
producers with opportunities to enhance their
livelihoods and contribute to better diets in both
rural and urban areas. In Nhat, an agricultural vil-
lage in the Red River Delta in Viet Nam, strong
rural-urban linkages—an improved road and trans-
port system, good communications infrastruc-
ture, and strong connections to agricultural service
suppliers—spurred agricultural intensification and
With increased access to nearby
urban markets and export markets, farm house-
holds successfully diversified agricultural activi-
ties beyond subsistence rice production toward
intensive, high-value production of fruits and veg-
The growth of high-value agricultural
production was boosted by income diversification
in most households from nonfarm employment
sources, such as handicrafts, trade and services,
and wage labor. The returns from these nonfarm
activities in large part allowed for investments in
raattoandrt rend RtrrenzrSntoe 19
farm expansion, thus helping to reduce poverty and
improve food security and nutrition.
CASE 2: THE ROLE OF SMALL- AND MEDIUM-SIZED
TOWNS AND CITIES IN ETHIOPIA
Small- and medium-sized towns and cities can act
as economic hubs that create strong synergistic
and mutually beneficial links between the farm sec-
tor in rural areas and the nonfarm sector in large
urban Isolation of rural areas or absence
of transport infrastructure connecting rural areas
to nearby towns and intermediate cities has been
shown to negatively affect agricultural productivity
and
A major element in Ethiopia’s urban develop-
ment policy was development of small towns as key
entry points. The country’s Plan for Accelerated and
Sustained Development to End Poverty for (2005–
2009) prioritized improvement of rural access roads,
telecommunications access, and market infrastruc-
ture as central components of its strategy to maxi-
mize synergistic growth and opportunities for towns
and surrounding rural
Empirical findings from Ethiopia point to the
importance of local market These urban
centers account for about 50 percent of agricul-
tural input purchases and up to 75 percent of agri-
cultural produce sales. Over half of household
food and nonfood spending and the bulk of artis-
anal product sales, especially by women, occur in
these towns. Additionally, proximity to local mar-
ket towns influences rural economic activities, and
better access to these towns, for example through
improved roads, had positive impacts on house-
hold welfare.
CASE 3: GLOBAL VALUE CHAIN DEVELOPMENT AND
URBAN GROWTH IN GHANA
Growing demand for higher value-added food, pro-
cessed through integrated global value chains, is
fueling Ghana’s process of accelerated urbanization
and structural transformation. For instance, cocoa
production increasingly contributed to average
farm incomes over the last two decades. Expansion
of cocoa production, processing, and trade from
the traditional areas in the eastern coastal region to
the western parts of Ghana increased revenue. The
expanding cocoa business also stimulated urban
economic activity, especially through increased
trade and business services and greater demand
for consumer goods and services. This expansion
gave rise to what have been labeled “consump-
tion cities”—where wealth created in non-urban sec-
tors is spent in urban sectors—as seen elsewhere in
This structural transformation occurred in only
some parts of the country. The more isolated north
still lags behind, largely as a result of poor infra-
structure and social services, low education and
agribusiness skills development, and lack of access
to These factors hamper value chain
development and keep rural-urban linkages weak in
northern Ghana.
IMPROVING RURAL-URBAN LINKAGES
As the world continues to urbanize, achieving food
security and nutrition for all depends on interven-
tions and approaches that build, strengthen, or
transform rural-urban linkages.
IMPROVE POLICY COORDINATION BETWEEN RURAL AND
URBAN AREAS
Working together effectively across rural,
peri-urban, and urban spaces—typically governed by
different local entities—requires policy coordination.
Policies that cut across rural and urban areas should
account for each area’s contribution in order to lever-
age their different strengths. Urban policy makers
should look beyond urban agriculture to meet their
food security and nutrition needs, and coordinate
with their rural counterparts to facilitate the flow of
agricultural products into cities. Rural policy mak-
ers should recognize the opportunities provided by
urbanization and promote market opportunities for
smallholders, traders, processors, and other actors
in the food value chain.
Political entities should work together to enhance
linkages that span politically distinct locales as a
means to facilitate sustainable production, stor-
age, transport, and marketing of safe and nutri-
tious food to urban consumers while reducing food
loss and waste. Establishing policy coordination
in planning and regulating the use of land, water,
and other resources critical to food production in
urban, peri-urban, and rural areas is also import-
ant for efficiency and win-win outcomes. Doing
so is not easy, as pointed out by a recent review of
territorial approaches to the governance of food
security and In addition to political
20 StrenStrenen tRtra-Rtrre anenrnr Sto rend tRenrt rend raeRStnSntoe
will, effective allocation of financial resources and
decision-making power are required to secure bet-
ter horizontal and vertical coordination across cen-
tral and local governments and policy domains.
Rural-urban partnerships have the potential to
create effective frameworks for cooperation and
joint But such partnerships are a
new approach, and other governance models for
policy coordination should also be explored. The
development community should continue to sup-
port the implementation plan for the New Urban
Agenda, which commits to enhancing coordina-
tion of urban and rural development strategies
and programs.
SUPPORT EFFICIENT AND INCLUSIVE RURAL-URBAN
VALUE CHAINS
Increasing demand for food and increasing scar-
city of land near urban areas can lengthen food
value chains. Moreover, changing consumption
patterns can shift employment within the food sys-
tem from agriculture to midstream segments such
as transport, wholesaling, retailing, food process-
ing, and vending. All this has implications for the
burgeoning youth population that will increasingly
seek employment, especially in Africa south of the
To take advantage of these changes, support
should be provided to make rural-urban value chains
more efficient and inclusive and to improve vertical
coordination. For example, vertical cooperatives—
such as the coffee unions of Ethiopia that provide
marketing and input-supply services and connect
producers to export markets—improve vertical coor-
dination. Establishing mechanisms such as com-
modity exchanges and warehouse receipts should
be considered, though strategies to mitigate the
costs of the necessary services for a commodity
exchange—warehousing, operations, and communi-
cations—as well as potential barriers to adoption by
smallholders, such as high minimum deposit quanti-
ties, require more
LEVERAGE TOWNS AND INTERMEDIATE CITIES
Strategies to better connect rural and urban areas
should address the specific challenges facing those
living in different places along the rural-urban con-
tinuum. Each area has a role to play in address-
ing rapid urbanization and finding synergies to
strengthen food systems. Rural townships and
medium-sized cities can facilitate economic and
social connections between rural and urban
Decentralization can play a key role in
allowing local governments and other local actors
to identify needs and priorities and to respond
Local decision making should be
supported by adequate resources, and local devel-
opment strategies should be well-integrated in
national planning. Some areas—including isolated
regions, mountainous areas, degraded environ-
ments, and indigenous settlements—may require
greater attention and tailored strategies and poli-
cies to link them to urban areas.
IMPROVE TARGETING OF PUBLIC INVESTMENT
Investing to develop rural areas—for both farm
and nonfarm sectors—can strengthen rural econo-
mies and reduce poverty in rural and urban areas.
Investments in rural physical infrastructure (such
as feeder roads, electricity, transportation, com-
munications, and cold storage) as well as in edu-
cation and health are crucial for small farms to
increase incomes and for rural residents to access
rural nonfarm jobs. Along with investments in infor-
mation and communications infrastructure, invest-
ments should be made in providing producers with
reliable agronomic information, including prices
and information on production
For urban dwellers, the impact of rural investment
extends to reducing urban poverty through growth
in the national economy and reduced food
Investments in rural areas and less-favored areas
can provide win-win outcomes for both the rural
and urban poor.
Investments in rural infrastructure will also
enhance resilience at the household level. For farm-
ers and those working further down the food value
chain, investments in cold storage, transporta-
tion, and energy infrastructure for processing help
smooth income shocks from seasonality, market vol-
atility, and weather variability.
MITIGATE RISKS BY PROMOTING SOCIAL PROTECTION IN
RURAL AND URBAN AREAS
Rapid urbanization can bring about economic and
social dislocations that leave some people behind.
Social protection measures for both rural and urban
contexts can ease these risks by reducing social
and economic inequalities, promoting decent work,
and fostering inclusive and sustainable growth.
raattoandrt rend RtrrenzrSntoe 21
Well-targeted, productive safety nets can help recip-
ients mitigate risk while building productive
In particular, policies to help rural small-scale farm-
ers increase productivity and move up to commer-
cially oriented systems or to participate in nonfarm
economic activities are important. Integrating nutri-
tion education into social safety net programs can
boost nutritional Brazil’s flagship pro-
gram, Bolsa Família, which was focused on poverty
reduction and food security, used cash transfers to
promote improved education and healthcare for
beneficiaries. Bolsa Família successfully incorpo-
rated education and health components through
integration with other social programs and policies
for food security and The program con-
tributed substantially to decreases in childhood
mortality, and in particular lowered deaths attribut-
able to malnutrition.
Remittances from migrant workers can increase
incomes of rural residents, diversify incomes, and
provide investment capital for the rural nonfarm
economy and small To help realize the
potential of remittances, formal and informal insti-
tutional and policy barriers that restrict in-country
movement of people should be removed. Key barri-
ers include poor infrastructure and lack of education
and access to information.
STRENGTHENING LINKS FOR
WIN-WIN OUTCOMES
Rapid urbanization brings new challenges for
achieving food security and nutrition for all: it
increases pressure on the food system to produce
resource-intensive foods and can contribute to
undernutrition through a lack of access to crucial
water, sanitation, and hygiene services. At the same
time, urban lifestyles and dietary preferences are
associated with increased prevalence of overweight
and obesity and diet-related disease. Developing
rural-urban linkages can help to address those chal-
lenges while promoting the benefits of rapid urban-
ization for food security and nutrition. These include
more diverse diets and greater income for rural resi-
dents, greater food access and availability for urban
residents, and greater national economic growth.
To strengthen rural-urban linkages, policy coor-
dination between rural and urban spaces must be
improved; food value chains strengthened with due
attention to the role of small towns and intermedi-
ate cities; rural infrastructure investments better tar-
geted; and productive social safety nets promoted.
Taking these steps is crucial to help end hunger and
malnutrition, and to achieve multiple SDGs in a time
of rapid urbanization.
22 StrenStrenen tRtra-Rtrre anenrnr Sto rend tRenrt rend raeRStnSntoe
“Urbanization is reshaping
the landscape within
which we must pursue the
Sustainable Development
Goals of ending
hunger, achieving food
security and improved
nutrition, and promoting
sustainable agriculture.”
KEY MESSAGES
■ Poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition become
increasingly urban problems as urban populations
expand everywhere.
■ Persistent child undernutrition, stubborn micronutri-
ent deficiencies, and an alarming rise in overweight and
obesity in urban areas mark the shift of the burden of
malnutrition from rural areas to cities:
■ One in three stunted children now lives in an
urban area.
■ Rapid increases in overweight and obesity have been
concentrated in urban areas.
■ The urban poor face a challenging food environment.
■ Food security in the city depends on access to cash.
Extremely poor urban households in many develop-
ing countries spend more than 50 percent of their
budget on food.
■ Dependence on purchased food and employment
in the informal sector—especially for women—leave
the urban poor vulnerable to income and food
price shocks.
■ Formal and informal safety nets often fail to protect
the poorest of the urban poor.
■ Limited access to healthcare, safe water, and san-
itation in cities leads to severe health and nutri-
tion inequalities for the urban poor—especially
slum dwellers.
POLICY AND RESEARCH NEEDS
■ What is the extent of poverty, food insecurity, and mal-
nutrition in urban areas?
■ What is the quality of urban diets, what are the nutrient
gaps, and what are the dietary patterns that increase
health risks?
■ What are the effects of the urban food environment on
food access and food choices?
■ How can we best tailor programs and policies to sup-
port the urban poor in tackling the distinct challenges of
urban life?
CHAPtER 3
FOOD SECURITY AND NUTRITION
Growing Cities, New Challenges
MARIE RUEL, JAMES GARREtt, AND SIVAN YOSEF
Marie Ruel is division director, Poverty, Health, and Nutrition Division, International Food
Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, USA. James Garrett is a senior research
fellow, Bioversity International, Rome, Italy. Sivan Yosef is a senior program manager,
Director General’s Office, IFPRI, Washington, DC, USA.
24 Growi wiwie, iio Chaaiiie
For the first time in history, more than half of the
world’s population lives in urban By 2050,
two-thirds of the world’s population is projected to
be urbanized, as billion additional people are
born in or migrate to urban Africa and Asia,
which currently have 40 percent and 47 percent,
respectively, of their populations living in urban
areas, are expected to account for 90 percent of
this Just three countries—China, India, and
Nigeria—are projected to add 900 million urban
residents by In North America, Europe, and
Latin America and the Caribbean, between 73
and 82 percent of the population currently lives in
urban centers, but urbanization in these regions
is expected to slow or stagnate between now and
2050. Globally, the growth of cities, large and small,
and peri-urban areas is creating a new set of chal-
lenges and opportunities for addressing poverty,
food security, and nutrition.
POVERTY, FOOD INSECURITY, AND
MALNUTRITION MOVE TO THE CITY
Poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition are mov-
ing to the cities, as the world’s population becomes
more urbanized. Between 1993 and 2002, the global
rate of poverty—those living on less than a dollar a
day—declined from 28 to 22 percent, largely reflect-
ing a drop in rural poverty rates in developing coun-
tries from 37 to 30 percent. Urban poverty remained
unchanged at approximately 13 percent. During
the same period, the absolute number of poor peo-
ple residing in urban areas rose by 50 million (from
242 to 292 million), while the number of rural poor
declined by 148 million (from 1,031 to 890 million).5
As a result, the urban share of the poor in devel-
oping countries rose from 19 to 25 percent in one
By 2020, up to 85 percent of the poor in
Latin America are expected to live in towns and cit-
ies, as will close to half (45 percent) of the poor in
Africa and
The Multidimensional Poverty Index, another
measure of poverty, includes 10 indicators reflecting
three dimensions of poverty (health, education, and
standard of living) for 105 This index esti-
mates the urban share of poverty as ranging from
This chapter is based on M. T. Ruel, J. Garrett, S. Yosef, and M.
Olivier, “Urbanization, Food Security and Nutrition,” in Nutrition
and Health in a Developing World, ed. S. de Pee, D. Taren,
and M. Bloem, 3rd ed. (New York: Springer Science+Business
Media, forthcoming).
Frrd ei uGwiy hid iuiGwiwri 25
38 percent in Europe and Central Asia, to roughly
30 percent in Latin America and East Asia and the
Pacific, to 16 percent in South Asia, and 14 percent
in Africa south of the Using the same index
for a smaller set of countries, the annual rate of
decline in poverty is also faster in rural compared to
urban areas ( percentage points versus 1 percent-
age point).
Food insecurity and malnutrition are likely to fol-
low these trends, given their close links with poverty.
A study of 12 African countries found that in all but
one, at least 40 percent of the urban population was
energy deficient (lacking in calories), with the preva-
lence of hunger reaching nearly 90 percent in urban
Another study of countries in Africa, Asia,
and Latin America found that the urban incidence of
hunger equaled or exceeded rural levels in 12 of the
18 countries
Childhood undernutrition reflected in stunt-
ing (low height-for-age) has declined rapidly in
the developing world, with the number of stunted
children dropping from 239 million in 1985 to
163 million in The bulk of this decline
occurred in rural areas, not urban Like pov-
erty, stunting has moved to the cities: the propor-
tion of stunted children living in urban areas rose
from 23 to 31 percent—meaning that approximately
one in three stunted children now lives in an urban
area. Although, on average, child undernutrition is
still less common in urban than in rural areas, under-
nutrition among poor urban children often rivals the
levels found among the rural Deficiencies of
essential minerals and vitamins such as iron, zinc,
iodine, and vitamin A also persist globally and are
estimated to affect half of all preschool children
and 2 billion people worldwide. No global esti-
mates are available for urban and rural areas, and
country-specific studies are far from In
China, deficiencies of micronutrients such as vita-
min A, vitamin B12, iron, and zinc were higher among
rural compared to urban In Venezuela,
adolescents living in rural areas had higher rates of
anemia and iron deficiency than those living in urban
Overweight and obesity at the global level
have also risen rapidly in both children and adults.
Among children, the number of overweight
rose by more than 50 percent in 20 years (1990–
2011).18 Overweight in children is most prevalent
in high-income countries, but by 2011 as many as
32 million overweight children lived in low- and
middle-income countries. The prevalence of over-
weight in children is often, although not always,
higher in urban than in rural areas. A compari-
son of low- and middle-income countries found
a higher prevalence of overweight in rural com-
pared to urban areas in 25 of the 80 countries stud-
Among adults, the global rise in overweight
and obesity since 1975 has been dramatic—more
than doubling in women and more than tripling in
men. The increase accelerated in the past decade,
and was more concentrated in urban than in rural
In a study of 38 countries, mean body mass
index and the prevalence of overweight was higher
among urban than rural women in most coun-
tries in both time periods studied (1991–2004 and
1998–2010).21 The rise of overweight and obesity in
urban areas and its health impacts are described in
greater detail in Chapter 4.
Overall, persistent child undernutrition, com-
bined with the stubborn problem of micronutrient
deficiencies and the alarmingly rapid rise in over-
weight and obesity, signals a shift toward a greater
overall burden of malnutrition (in all its forms) in
urban compared to rural This transfer of
poverty, food insecurity, and malnutrition to urban
areas demands a new understanding of the drivers
of these problems and of the policies, programs,
and interventions needed to tackle them. In the fol-
lowing pages, we review the unique features and
conditions found in urban areas that shape food
security and nutrition, and highlight the opportuni-
ties and challenges created by urbanization, espe-
cially for the poorest segments of the population.
We conclude with recommendations for immediate
program and policy actions to help urban residents
achieve food security and good nutrition, as well as
recommendations for intensifying research efforts.
A DIVERSE AND PLENTIFUL FOOD SUPPLY
Urban food supplies are strikingly diverse. Urban
residents enjoy a greater variety of foods and food
sources (such as supermarkets, convenience stores,
restaurants, and street foods) than their rural coun-
terparts. Infrastructure and population densities
in urban centers facilitate distribution, transpor-
tation, and technology use, allowing suppliers to
reach more consumers at lower cost and encour-
aging the rapid spread of Greater
26 Growi wiwie, iio Chaaiiie
availability of electricity and often higher incomes
allow urban households and businesses to use
refrigeration to store foods, and therefore shop less
often, particularly for perishable foods such as pro-
duce, dairy, and meat products. With more women
engaged in the labor force in urban areas, demand
for convenience in buying and preparing food is
Technologies provide a range of con-
venient processed goods, including canned and fro-
zen items, snacks, and prepared meals, as well as
ultra-processed foods with extended
Supermarkets have expanded rapidly in many
developing countries, especially in urban areas of
emerging economies. By the mid-2000s, super-
markets controlled 30 to 50 percent of the food
market in Southeast Asia, Central America, and
Argentina, Chile, and Supermarkets can
offer a wide range of fresh produce, dairy prod-
ucts, animal-source foods, and a host of processed
Also available to urban citizens are more tra-
ditional food outlets, such as local grocery stores,
fruit and vegetable markets, and street vendors.
These still account for a large proportion of food
purchases, especially in Africa and Asia and most
especially for the urban (Governance of infor-
mal food markets to support poor urban consumers
and small producers in Africa is discussed in detail
in Chapter 6.) As of the mid-2000s, supermarkets
in Africa south of the Sahara still accounted for less
than 5 percent of urban food expenditures, and they
are expected to remain a minority food supplier in
the future, especially for the urban In Zambia
and Kenya, for example, supermarkets still cater pri-
marily to households in the top 20 percent of income
Urban food retail systems are thus
two-pronged, comprising modern retailers, which
control a large share of the nonstaple and processed
food markets, and traditional retailers, which domi-
nate sales of fruits, vegetables, and usually
Street foods are also available in many cities,
and can provide a low-cost, convenient, and attrac-
tive source of ready-made food for urban residents,
especially among smaller and poorer urban fami-
Street foods can make up a significant part
of the diet of select groups; in Nairobi, Kenya, for
example, 51 percent of men in one low-income
neighborhood and 72 percent in another regu-
larly purchased street food for lunch, which contrib-
uted 23 and 70 percent of their daily energy intake,
In Nigeria, adolescents obtain 40 to
70 percent of their food from street vendors, supply-
ing 20 to 30 percent of their daily energy
On a more negative note, mass media and mar-
keting have greater presence in urban areas, influ-
encing consumers’ tastes and preferences, often
toward energy-dense and micronutrient-poor
processed foods and low-quality Foreign
direct investment has contributed to the rise of
fast-food restaurants and to the processing and
marketing of global junk food brands in developing
Urban agriculture—growing crops or raising live-
stock in urban or peri-urban areas—can offer another
source of food as well as employment and income
for urban dwellers. A recent analysis of 15 devel-
oping and transitional countries shows enormous
variation in the share of urban households that par-
ticipate in agriculture, ranging from 11 percent
in Indonesia to 70 percent in Nicaragua and Viet
Still, urban agriculture accounts for only 5
to 15 percent of total agricultural production in the
studied countries, and most households consume
the food they produce rather than sell it. Although
the contribution of urban agriculture to income
is generally low (less than 10 percent in 10 of the
15 countries), urban farming is linked with improved
dietary diversity in two-thirds of the countries. But
despite its demonstrated benefits, the contribution
of urban agriculture may be limited by production
and legal constraints related to the availability of key
inputs such as water, safe handling of agrochemicals,
and disposal of animal or crop waste.
HEALTHY DIETS ARE BEYOND
REACH FOR THE URBAN POOR
While the food environment in urban areas offers
tremendous diversity and opportunities for con-
sumers, the urban poor face a set of challenges that
may jeopardize their access to high-quality, diverse,
safe, and affordable diets and increase their risk of
poor health and nutrition. Urban dwellers are more
likely to meet their protein and energy requirements
than rural dwellers. But urban consumers, espe-
cially as their incomes increase, are also more likely
to consume imbalanced diets heavy on processed
foods, too high in calories, saturated fats, refined
sugars, and salt, and low in In addition,
although urban residents tend to consume more
fruits and vegetables, urban diets can remain low in
Frrd ei uGwiy hid iuiGwiwri 27
micronutrients such as iron, zinc, and vitamin A. In
urban areas of Benin, Kenya, and Mali, for example,
women were found to have inadequate intake of sev-
eral vitamins and Micronutrient-fortified
processed foods such as cereals, oils, bouillon
cubes, milk, and noodles are more easily available in
urban areas, but high prices for these products may
be prohibitive for the
Poor diets among city residents result
from a combination of forces. These include
food-environment factors such as the availabil-
ity and aggressive marketing of energy-rich and
nutrient-poor processed foods and fast-food outlets;
changes in food habits and demand that come with
higher incomes; changes in types of employment,
particularly for women, which increase demand for
convenience and ready-to-eat foods and meals; and
changing norms and attitudes toward foods asso-
ciated with urban living, such as pressures to move
away from traditional diets. Chapter 4 further inves-
tigates the causes and implications of this dietary
transition. Together with more sedentary lifestyles,
these factors put the population at increased risk
of overweight and obesity and related noncom-
municable diseases. An additional concern is the
food-safety risk associated with eating out, specifi-
cally with street
NAVIGATING THE URBAN
CASH ECONOMY
The urban economy is cash-based. Urban house-
holds generally purchase most of their food, mak-
ing employment and a stable income vital for food
access. For the poor, food often accounts for a large
share of total expenditure, especially in urban areas.
Their livelihoods and food security depend heavily
on informal-sector employment, including women’s
employment, on formal and informal safety nets, and
on coping mechanisms for dealing with income or
food price shocks.
THE CHALLENGES OF RELYING ON INFORMAL JOBS
Although urban areas can offer a wide range of
employment possibilities for men and women, for
the less-educated and less-skilled, employment is
often in the informal sector. Most urbanites work in
sectors such as petty trade, construction, or man-
ufacturing, where wages are low and jobs are for-
midably Across developing countries,
employment in the informal sector accounts for
more than 50 percent of all nonagricultural employ-
In India, for example, 78 percent of the work-
force is employed in the informal sector (excluding
agriculture), which is mostly based in urban and
semi-urban Women are more likely to be
self-employed in the informal economy, and in Africa
south of the Sahara, women outnumber men in the
informal economy as a Although infor-
mal jobs and self-employment may help to diver-
sify income and provide more flexibility in terms of
hours worked (which may be particularly useful for
women with children), formal-sector employment
is generally a more stable and consistent source of
income. However, formal employment is less acces-
sible for the poorer and less-educated segments of
the population.
For women, working outside the home may
require trade-offs related to the cost or quality of
childcare. Although it is often assumed that urban
women are more likely to work outside the home,
empirical evidence shows no difference between
urban and rural women, except in Latin America.
When they work, however, urban women are less
likely than rural women to take their children to
their place of work, perhaps because their work-
places—such as markets, offices, factories, and pri-
vate homes—are less suitable for children. They
are also more likely to use hired help or institu-
tional care for their children than rural
Whether this puts their children at an advantage
or a disadvantage depends on the nature, stabil-
ity, and remuneration of the job, as well as the qual-
ity of childcare substitutes used. The few studies
on the topic have found little evidence that mater-
nal employment affects child feeding, psychoso-
cial care, health-seeking practices, child health, or
nutritional status in low- and middle-income coun-
This may reflect the fact that working moth-
ers use adaptive strategies to balance their dual
role as income earner and childcare giver—for exam-
ple, stopping work around the perinatal period
(even if unpaid), working fewer hours, or taking their
young child along to their workplace. These adap-
tive strategies may reduce the negative effects of
employment on childcare and well-being. But they
may also jeopardize the mother’s ability to gener-
ate the income needed to sustain her household’s
well-being and food security, especially if she is the
sole income earner.
28 Growi wiwie, iio Chaaiiie
INCOMES AND FOOD PRICES SHAPE ACCESS TO FOOD
Incomes and food prices play a critical role in food
access, given that most food consumed in urban
areas is purchased. Extremely poor urban house-
holds in 20 low- and middle-income countries were
found, on average, to spend more than 50 percent
of their budget on food. Food budget shares
ranged from 48 percent in Guatemala to 74 percent
in Budget shares for urban dwellers’
spending on food appear to be consistently lower
than those for rural dwellers, even at the same level
of nominal income. This may be due to relatively
greater expenditures on other essential items in
urban areas, such as transport and rent. Economic
factors, along with the influences of marketing and
related tastes and preferences, are key drivers of city
residents’ choices regarding where to eat (at home
or away from home) and what to eat (home-prepared
food, street food, or fast food).49
Dependence on purchased food also means
that the urban poor are vulnerable to income and
food price shocks. For a household, the impact of
a food price shock depends on a number of fac-
tors, including whether the household is a net food
buyer, and whether it is able to cope by shifting
from internationally traded staples to less expen-
sive, less traded goods such as roots and tubers, or
if it has land that can be used to grow The
urban poor are disadvantaged on most of these
counts: 97 percent of urban households are net
food buyers, the majority spend a large proportion
of their income on traded staples,51 and most do
not have access to land for agricultural production.
Nevertheless, analyses of the recent food price cri-
sis suggest that contrary to expectations, poverty—
rather than urban or rural location—determined
who was most No evidence was found
of an urban disadvantage, with the poorest popu-
lations in both urban and rural areas suffering the
most from food price
SAFETY NETS ARE LESS ACCESSIBLE TO THE URBAN POOR
For urban dwellers, formal safety nets are not as
widely accessible as often perceived. A 2014 sur-
vey of more than 100 countries challenged assump-
tions about access to formal safety nets, showing
that on average, only 21 percent of urban compared
to 28 percent of rural dwellers are covered by social
safety This rural-urban difference may reflect
effective targeting—globally, the majority of the poor
still reside in rural areas. It may also reflect the chal-
lenges of targeting programs to the urban poor,
many of whom live transient lives, either moving fre-
quently or migrating. A recent review of urban social
safety net programs in low- and middle-income
countries emphasizes the need for an “urban adap-
tation” of successful rural models and a greater
emphasis on evidence generation and learning to
provide the urban poor with better-tailored and
more effective income and livelihood
Informal safety nets, such as immediate and
extended family members, trusted friends, and com-
munity or neighborhood networks built on social
trust, cooperation, and reciprocity, are another
possible source of support in times of hardship.
Although data are unavailable to document the
nature and strength of informal safety nets in urban
areas, they may be less sturdy than in rural areas
because of weaker identification with the community
(especially when residence is temporary); higher lev-
els of violence in urban areas, which can diminish the
trust necessary for nonfamily collective action; and
the fact that family members may live apart from one
another, reducing the ability to undertake activities
that do not rely on immediate These
limited possibilities for external help in times of trou-
ble, when combined with the need to use cash for
food, contribute to substantial insecurity and uncer-
tainty for the livelihoods and food security of the
urban poor.
ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS THREATEN
HEALTH AND NUTRITION
To live healthy and productive lives, people need
more than food. To absorb and use the nutrients
they need for growth, physical activity, reproduc-
tion, maintenance of bodily functions, and healthy
aging, people need to be free of diseases. And for
that, they need access to safe water, sanitation, and
hygiene services, to high-quality healthcare services,
and to safe food. Life in urban areas is often char-
acterized by high population density, air pollution,
insects and rodents, other contaminants, and weak
infrastructure, especially in informal settlements
or slums where most of the poor live (Box 1). Urban
populations are exposed to this unique set of envi-
ronmental and health risks, which can affect not only
their health and nutrition, but also their livelihoods,
income, and food security.
Frrd ei uGwiy hid iuiGwiwri 29
Access to healthcare, clean water, and proper
sanitation services is generally greater in urban
than rural Access to these basic services
appears to range across a continuum—rural dwell-
ers have the least access, followed by the urban
poor, with the urban non-poor enjoying the best
Urban dwellers are also more likely
than their rural counterparts to use health ser-
vices for both curative and preventive
Socioeconomic disparities in cities and towns, how-
ever, have tremendous effects on access to and use
of these Poor urban dwellers tend to live
in crowded, often unplanned environments with
limited access to high-quality water sources, sani-
tation facilities, water drainage, and waste disposal
services. These conditions make it almost impos-
sible to prevent contamination of water and food,
maintain adequate levels of hygiene, prevent respi-
ratory infections through improved air quality, or
control rodent contamination or insect vectors of
diseases such as dengue and Not sur-
prisingly, the prevalence of child diarrhea among
urban residents is often as high as, or higher than,
among rural A recent analysis covering
73 countries showed that children in smaller towns
or slums are at higher than average risk for diar-
rhea than are children living in either urban or rural
In India, where the slum population is esti-
mated at 65 million, nearly half of slum residents
have respiratory diseases and spend more than
BOx 1 THE PLIGHT OF SLUMS
Slums are settlements characterized by inadequate access to safe water, sanitation, and infrastructure; nondurable and over-
crowded housing; and insecure residential Slums are often set up on dangerous and unclaimed land, and residents do
not pay property taxes that would cover public services such as electricity, water and sanitation, and waste Given the
threat of eviction, slum dwellers often lack incentive to invest personally in housing quality improvements or sanitation and
waste and sewage disposal infrastructure, which in turn may have devastating consequences for their
In 2014, 881 million people lived in slums in the developing world, an increase from 689 million in In India, 17
percent of urban dwellers, or 65 million people, live in In Peru, 34 percent of the urban population lives in slums. In
Uganda, the proportion skyrockets to 54 By 2030, the number of slum residents in low- and middle-income countries
is projected to reach 2 billion, with most living in Africa and Asia and in smaller This extraordinary growth prompted the
United Nations to devote a target of Sustainable Development Goal 11, which focuses on improving cities, to upgrading
Life in slums is characterized by overcrowding, indoor and outdoor air pollution, dusty roads, and lack of water, sanitation,
and sewage infrastructure, all of which expose residents to a plethora of environmental health risks. Water and food contamina-
tion and related infections are particularly common, and affect children Young children living in slums have
a greater incidence of diarrheal illnesses and a higher risk of mortality than their non-slum urban Systematic reviews of
cholera outbreaks in Africa have sourced them to slum Exclusive breastfeeding, which offers protection from
infections in young infants, was found to be low in slums in India, due to myths and low utilization of health Child-
hood undernutrition is also higher in slums compared with other urban areas, fueling the vicious cycle of poverty and infection
and increasing the risks of long-term consequences for cognitive development, economic productivity, overweight and obesity,
and related noncommunicable
