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新產品開發與管理
Why Is NPDM
an Important Field of Study?
• Big business
• Key weapons to success
• Escape price war
• Difficult and complicated multifunctional work
• High failure rate
– No need for the product
– New product did not meet the need
– Product was not well marketed
• Great life
What Is a New Product?
(From Developer’s View)
• New-to-the-World Products
– Photocopier, PC, Microwave oven, Space shuttle
• New Category Entries
– Hewlett-Packard PCs, AT&T Universal Card
• Additions to Product Lines
– Bud light, Tide Liquid detergent
• Product Improvements
– Windows 98, plain-paper fax
• Repositionings
– Johnson & Johnson’s baby milk oil
Growth Paths & Venturing
The Conflicting Masters of New
Products Management
• Three inputs to the new
products process: the
right quality product, at
the right time, and at the
right cost.
• These conflict with each
other but may have
synergies too.
• Issue: how to optimize
these relationships in a
new product situation.
Quality
Time Cost
Value
New Product Process
Phase 1: Opportunity Identification/Selection
Phase 2: Concept Generation
Phase 3: Concept/Project Evaluation
Phase 4: Development
Phase 5: Launch
Phase 1: Opportunity
Identification/Selection
創新機會之確認 Druker
(1985)
Phase 2: Concept Generation (I)
• A product concept is a statement about anticipated
product features that will yield selected benefits
relative to other products.
• Preparation for ideation (people, activities,
rewards, environment & culture)
• Methods
– Problem-based ideation
– Analytical attribute approaches
New Product Concepts and the
New Product
Need Form
Technology New
Product
“C”=
Concepts
C
C
C
Some Patterns in Concept
Generation
Customer need firm develops technology
produces form (Market-oriented)
Firm develops technology finds match to need in
a customer segment produces form
(Technology-oriented)
Firm envisions form develops technology to
product form tests with customer to see what
benefits are delivered (Product-oriented)
Note: the innovation process can start with any of the
three inputs.
Forms of Human Creativity
Activities to encourage creativity
• Competitive teams.
• Free time. ex. 3M
• Flexible working time.
• Transferring creative people.
• Research program.
– IDEA in TI
– Genesis grants in 3M
– 6-month project in Sony & Toshiba
Special Rewards
• Spare cash in pockets, Thomas Watson of IBM
• Presidential rewards for excellence, Campell
Soup
• Spin-off management, Toyota and Honda
• Annual dinners
• Parties and trophies
Innovative Climate
• Autonomy
• Fluctuation/creative chaos
• Redundancy
Environment effect
Phase 2: Concept Generation (II)
Problem-Based Ideation
• Routine Market Contacts
– Sales call reports, Service department records,
Complaint files, Tips from resellers, etc.
• Direct Inputs from Technical and Marketing
People
• Problem Analysis
• Scenario Analysis
Problem Analysis
Telephone
• Keeping the unit clean.
• Keeps falling to the floor.
• Get entangled with cord.
• Finding it in dark.
• Getting privacy in house.
• Who “out there” hears me?
• Get past message phones.
• Looking up numbers.
• Busy signals.
• Hard to hold.
• Move across rooms or
buildings.
• Phone peddlers.
• My arm and ear get tired.
• Loudness of bell.
• Disruptive instrument.
• Can’t see body language.
• Making emergency calls.
• Wrong numbers.
• Fear of what ringing is for.
• Those “menus.”
The Bothersomeness Technique of
Scoring Problems
Phase 2: Concept Generation (III)
Analytical Attribute Approaches
• Quantitative
– Gap Analysis (Determinant gap map, AR perceptual gap
map, OS perceptual map)
– Trade-Off Analysis (Conjoint Analysis)
• Qualitative
– Analogy
– Dimensional Analysis
– Checklists
– Relationships Analysis
Gap Maps
Regular Thick Ex-Thick
U
TI
LI
TY
2
1
0
-1
-2
Mild Medium-Hot Ex-Hot Red Green
Thickness Spiciness Color
Conjoint Analysis:
Graphical Output
Spiciness
Thickness
Color
%
%
%
Analogy
A Dimensional Attribute List
of a Flashlight
• Weight
• Rust resistance
• Length
• Color
• Water resistance
• Materials
• Style
• Durability
• Shock resistance
• Heat tolerance
• Explosiveness
• Flammability
• Aroma
• Translucence
• Buoyancy
• Hangability
• Rechargeability
• Flexibility
• Malleability
• Compressibility
An Idea Stimulator Checklist
• Can the dimensions be changed? (larger, smaller, longer,
shorter, thicker...)
• Can the quantity be changed? (more, less, combine, fractionate...)
• Can the order be changed? (arrangement, precedence...)
• Can the time element be changed? (faster, slower...)
• Can the cause or effect be changed? (stimulated, energized...)
• Can there be a change in character? (stronger, weaker...)
• Can the form be changed? (animated, speeded, slowed, attracted...)
• Can the state or condition be changed? (hotter, colder...)
• Can the use be adapted to a new market? (men, women...)
Relationships Analysis for New Insurance Products
Phase 3: Concept/Project
Evaluation
• Design of evaluation system
• Full screen
– Judgment/Managerial Opinion (smaller firms and those who did little new
product work)
– Concept Test followed by Sales Forecast (if only issue is whether
consumers will like it)
– Scoring Models (a mechanical arrangement of checklist factors with
weights on them)
• Evaluate new product concepts (as they begin to come in) on technical,
marketing, and financial criteria.
• Rank them and select the best ones.
• Product protocol
Cumulative Expenditures Curve --
Key Input to the Design of the Evaluation System
% of
expenditures
Time Launch
Many high-tech products
R&D (major cost)
Many consumer products
Marketing (major cost)
Notes on the Design of Evaluation Systems
• Emphasize the stages that use most of the
expenditures.
• Error AB (Stop the project that would
succeed) is worse than BA (Continue the
project that would fail).
• Opportunity cost. (What other project is
waiting for funding?)
Procedure for a Concept Test
• Prepare concept
statement
• Decide concept test
format(s)
• Commercialize
concept statement
• Offer competitive
information
• Determine price(s)
• Select respondent
type(s)
• Select response
situation
• Define the interview
• Conduct trial
interviews
• Interview, tabulate,
analyze
Mail Concept Test Format-- Sketch
The A-T-A-R Model: Definitions
• Buying Unit: Purchase point (person or department/buying
center).
• Aware: Has heard about the new product with some
characteristic that differentiates it.
• Trial: Usually means a purchase or consumption of the
product.
• Available: If the buyer wants to try the product, the effort
to find it will be successful (expressed as a percentage).
• Repeat: The product is bought at least once more, or (for
durables) recommended to others.
An A-T-A-R Model of
Innovation Diffusion
Profits = Units Sold x Profit Per Unit
Units Sold = Number of buying units
x % aware of product
x % who would try product if they can get it
x % to whom product is available
x % of triers who become repeat purchasers
x Number of units repeaters buy in a year
Profit Per Unit = Revenue per unit - cost per unit
A-T-A-R Model Application
Ex. A new device to replace the security bars car owners attach to
steering wheels in expensive sports cars.
3 million Number of owners of sports cars
x 40% Percent awareness of owners the first year
x 20% Percent of "aware" owners who will try product
x 40% Percent availability at auto parts stores
x 50% Percent of triers who will buy for the second car
x Number of devices the typical trier buys per year
x $ Price per unit minus trade margins and discounts
($25) minus unit cost at the intended volume
($)
=$1,800,000 Profits
A Scoring Model for Full Screen
Note: this model only shows a few sample screening factors.
Factor Score (1-5) Weight Weighted Score
Technical task difficulty
Research skills required
Rate of technological change
Design superiority assurance
Manufacturing equipment...
Market volatility
Probable market share
Sales force requirements
Competition to be faced
Degree of unmet need...
Contents of a Product Protocol
• Target market
• Product positioning
• Product attributes
(benefits)
• Competitive comparison
• Augmentation
dimensions
• Timing
• Marketing requirements
• Financial requirements
• Production requirements
• Regulatory requirements
• Corporate strategy
requirements
• Potholes
Phase 4: Development
A. Technical Tasks
• Specify the full development process, and its
deliverables.
• Undertake to design prototypes
• Test and validate prototypes against protocol
• Design and validate production process for the
best prototype
• Slowly scale up production as necessary for
product and market testing.
• Stages of Technical Development
What Is Design
• The synthesis of technology and human needs into
manufacturable products.
• Well-designed products
– On manufacturing -- save time and cost, and enhance
quality
– On product use -- easy to use and explain
– On service -- easy to install, maintain, and repair
– On product disposal -- easy to disassembly
– On living -- more attractive and functional
• A good design is aesthetically pleasing, easy to
make and use, reliable, economical to operate and
service, and fits recycling standards.
What Excellence Requires of Design
• Design from the outside in, customer’s use being
central
• Partner deeply and widely
• Protocol and prototype prior to tooling and
manufacturing
• Get prototype as fast as you can
• Design for manufacturability
• Surprise the user
Customer Attributes Engineering Characteristics
Engineering Characteristics Parts Characteristics
Parts Characteristics Process Operations
Process Operations Production Requirements
Parts Deployment:
Process Planning:
Production Planning:
Converted to:
Converted to:
Converted to:
Converted to:
Stages of Technical Development
Phase 4: Development
B. Marketing Tasks
• Product use test
• Prepare strategy, tactics, and launch details for
marketing plan
• Prepare proposed business plan and get approval
for it
• Stipulate product augmentation (service,
packaging, branding, etc.) and prepare for it.
What is Product Use Testing?
• Product is also called field testing, user testing, or
market acceptance testing.
• Product use under normal operating conditions.
• Testing should continue until the new product
solve the problem or fill the need expressed in the
protocol.
Knowledge Gained From Product
Use Testing
• Pre-use sense reactions: immediate sensations of color,
speed , durability, mechanical suitability, and so on.
• Early use experiences ("Does it work?").
• Beta tests: short-term use tests, at selected external or
internal customer sites, free of bugs?
• Gamma testing: long-term user tests, thoroughly
evaluated by the end user and solve whatever problem the
customer had.
• Diagnostic information.
Some Key Testing Dimensions
• User groups to contact (. lab personnel, 3-6 experts,
30 more employees, 20 to several hundred
stakeholders).
• Mode of contact (mail vs. personal, individual vs.
group, point of use vs. central location).
• Identity disclosure (avoid halo-image effects).
• Degree of use explanation (no comment, some, full
explanation).
• Degree of control over use (total, supervised vs.
unsupervised)
• Singularity (monadic usually less sensitive than paired
or triangular comparison).
More Key Testing Dimensions
• Duration of use (single use vs. extended periods).
• Source of product (batch, pilot plant, final
production).
• Product form (best single product vs. variants).
• Mode of recording reaction (like/dislike,
preference, descriptive information).
• Source of norms (past experience, market research
firms).
• Research service (internal product development
team vs. outside personnel).
Phase 5: Launch
• Commercialize the plans and prototypes from
development phase
• Marketing testing
• Begin distribution and sale of the new product
• Manage the launch program to achieve the goals
and objectives set in the PIC (as modified in the
final business plan).
Market Testing Relates to Other Testing
Steps
Product
Product
concept
R&D
Prototype
Production
Prototype
Product
Marketing Plan
Target
Positioning
Price
Promotion
Distribution
Packaging
Service
Plan
Concept test
Product use test
Marketing
Components tests:
Ad copy,pricing,
and others
Market test
Product used
for national
launch
Final plan
for national
launch
Comment: Today’s quality programs insist on building quality into a product during its early stages.
We have always done a lot of this on components of the marketing plan. With components
quality-tested, we are ready to see if the two end packages fit together; this is done in a market test.
Lack of needs?
Meeting needs?
Marketing poorly?
Methods of Market Testing
• Pseudo Sale
– Speculative Sale – ask the potential buyers if they would buy the
product.
– Simulated Test Marketing – creates a false buying situation and
observes what the buyers do.
• Controlled Sale
– Informal Selling – train a few salespeople, give them the product
and the selling materials, and have them begin making calls.
– Direct Marketing – sells directly by means of the mail,
telephone, fax, internet…
– Minimarketing – selects one or several outlets as a minimarket.
• Full Sale
– Test Marketing – a presumably representative piece of the total
market is chosen for a dress rehearsal.
– Rollout
The Launch Management System
• Spot potential problems.
• Select those to control.
– Consider expected impact/damage.
• Develop clear and specific contingency plans for the
management of problems.
• Design the tracking system.
– Select variables.
– Devise measuring system.
– Select trigger points.
Adage: in driving a car, it is the potholes you don’t know
about (or forget about) that cause you damage.
Options in New Products Organization
1. Functional: work is done by the various departments, very little project
focus.
• Usually a new products committee or product planning committee.
• Low risk work and present line of products
• Does not lead to much innovation.
2. Project Matrix: High projectization, team people are project people
first and functional people second.
• People may drive the project even against department’s best
wishes.
• ex. IBM PC developed this way.
3. Venture: Team members pulled out of department to work full time on
project.
• May be kept in the regular organization or spun outside
Building a Team
• The importance of culture
• The team assignment and ownership
• Selecting the leader
• Selecting the team members
• Roles and participants
• Network building
• Training the teams
Innovation Processes in
Multinational Corporations
1. Center-for-Global Innovation Process
1.總公司負責新產品R&D、設計、開發，整個系統遍及全世界使用。
2. Local-for-local Innovation Process
1. 子公司負責當地水準之創新過程的執行，行銷導向甚於技術創新，
只牽涉既存技術、產品或管理系統微小的修正！
3. Local-for-Global Innovation Process
1. 由某一子公司開始創新，接連再擴散到其它子公司各單位執行。
4. Global-for-Global Innovation Process
1. 聚集母公司和很多不同子公司聯合開發全球性產品，和其它型態主
要不同在於由各公司共同分享
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