JournalofBusinessResearch62(2009)314–322ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirectJournalofBusinti128andsuheorbranalisondgthbralapproParva),thatentw2; cantothersintheformationofstrongconsumer–brandrelation-achievement,postmodernismhasreinforcedtheimportanceoflivingships,forafastmovingconsumergoodsproduct;,andenjoyingthefragmentedmomentsofconsumers’lifeexperiences rstdiscussestheconceptofbrandreputationandthepotential(FiratandSchultz,1997).,butbecauseoftheirsymbolicmeaning,,proposestheresearchquestionsandbutasellingentitywhichtheproducttriesdoesnotrepresenttheproduct;it’stheproimage(Cova,1999)andeachconsumerconsumer”thatbuysimagesnotproducts -mailaddresses:@(@().0148-2963/$–seefrontmatter': cbrandsansomewhatsimilarinnature(JohnstonandThreducetheirchoicesetispossible(ShethandParvatiyar,1995)andItisappreciatedthattherelationainmassconsumermarkets(Shethand1996;O'MalleyandTynan,1999,2000bethebaseforrelationshipdevelopmandBrondie,1998;Covielloetal.,200images,“symbolsandobjects”,canbcanbeusedasabasisofarelaIndividualsmaydeveloprelationshipviewsconsumershaveonbrandsthroughtheirreputationandtheachisafeasiblestrategysocialin uencetheyexperienceintermsofbrandtribeswhentheytiyar,1995;Christyetal.,(Covielloluxurybrandsand/orproductsthatconsumersarehighlyinvolvedwith,,2002)andthatmentalsuchascars,motorbikes,jeeps,computersorpersonaldigitalassistantsfthemanyaspectsthat('Guinn,2001;McAlexanderetal.,2002;Algesheimerp(Gummesson,1994).etal.,2005;MunizandSchau,2005;SchoutenandMcAlexander,2005),speci cbrandsandtoandthereisaverylimitedattempttoanalyzeproductsthattargetthemassmarket,suchaschocolatespread(,2006). ,LuizMoutinhoUniversityofGlasgow,DepartmentofManagement,TheGilbertScottBuilding,Glasgow,GARTICLEINFOABSTRACTArticlehistory:TheacademicresearchonbrReceived1December2007connectednessbetweenconReceivedinrevisedform1March2008investigatesthenatureandtAccepted1May2008trendofjoiningbrandtribestowardsandpreferencetobKeywords:“illusion(Elliot,1999).However,utsou),,Scotland,,,, ndingssuggestthatbrandtribalismisabetterndrelationshipsthanthelongtermbrandreputationitself.',itoffersdiscussion, table,brandsshouldhaveapositivereputation(HerbigandMilewicz,1995).
, ed,—andeventuallydevelopanegativereputation—ifitrepeatedlyfailstoful llitsstatedintentionsormarketingsignals(MilewiczandHerbig,1994).,whilebothmanagersandtheenvironmentsustainthem(Jevonsetal.,2005),researchindicatesthatconsumerscanthinkofbrandsasiftheyarecelebrities(Rook,1985),orasiftheyhaveacharacteroftheirown(Blackston,1992,1993).Brandreputationoccursprimarythroughthesignalsthatproducerssendtothemarketandthedegreethattheorganizationaltacticssupportthemarketingsignalsestablishit(HerbigandMilewicz,1995).Inthisrespect,itisanoutputofthebrandidentitythatthecompanyproposes,’sconceptandthebrandimage,andasaconsequenceitsreputationwillbemanagedoverthebrand’slife,viatheselectionofabrandexpression,itsintroductioninthemarketanditsfurtherexpansion,defenseandenforcementovertime(Parketal.,1986).,sincethebrandisaddingcredibility(MilewiczandHerbig,1994).,' ,thereisalwaysatimelageffect(Shapiro,1983),whichisexpectedtoin 'scurrentreputationwillin ,,themarketexpectsconsistencyfromthebrand,(sayingonethinganddoinganother)(HerbigandMilewicz,1995).,sinceitwasarguingthatbrandsareprimarilytransactionfacilitators(Grönroos,1996;CovielloandBrondie,2001;Covielloetal.,2002).Theliteratureatthetimewassuggestingthatproducershavetodecideontheemphasisgiventothebrandelementandtherelationshipelementwhenpositioningtheirofferings,choosingfromacontinuumoflow-highemphasisforbothelements(Palmer,1996).However,popularpresswasthe ( nancial,physicaloremotional)thatbringsthebrandsellerandbuyertogether(SchultzandSchultz,2004)andthatbrandsareentitieshavingtheirownpersonality,whichthecustomercanrelateto(,1992,1993;FournierandYao,1997;Fournier,1998;Blackston,2000;PawleandCooper,2006).Buyersalsodeveloprelationshipswiththeproduct,theobject(SarenandTzokas,1998;Lye,2002)orwiththeservice(Dall'OlmoRileyanddeChernatony,2000)andtheirknowledgeandfeelingsaboutthebrand,in uencestheirevaluationoftheproductscarryingthisbrand(AakerandKeller,1990;DacinandSmith,1994;BrawnandDacin,1997).Otherproductorserviceattributescanmakethebrand–consumerrelationshipstrongerorweaker,as—forexample—themusicplayedinacertainretailoutlet(Beverlandetal.,2006).Itisnowacknowledgedthatconsumerscreatebondswithspeci cbrands,objectsor rms(DaskouandHart,2002;Thomsonetal.,2005)totheextentthatevenstoreloyalconsumerstendtoswitchstoresasmuchasthenon-storeloyal(opportunist)consumerswhentheycannot ndtheproductbrandtheyrequire(Verbekeetal.,1998).Companieshaverealizedthepotentialofrelationshipswithcon-sumersandoftendeveloprelevantcustomerrelationshipstrategiesinanattempttodevelopanactivelylinkedconsumerbase(RowleyandHaynes,2005).Relationshipmarketingintheconsumerproductcontextconsistsofthemanagementofanetworkofrelationshipsbetweenabrandanditscustomers(Ambler,1997).Althoughsomeconsumersmightbeunwillingtoacceptthattheyformarelationshipwithbrandswhenitisdescribedintheseterms(Bengtsson,2003),theliteraturesuggeststhatabrandcanbetreatedas“anactivecontributingpartnerinadyadicrelationshipthatexistsbetweenthepersonandthebrand”(Fournier,1995).Recentresearch ndingssupportthatthepositivebrandandpersonalinteractionarecentraltothebuildingofsuccessfulbrandrelationships(O'Loughlinetal.,2004).Forthebrandtotransformtoalegitimaterelationshippartner,ithastosurpassthepersoni cationquali cationstageandbehaveasanactivecontribut-ingmemberofthedyad(Fournier,1998;Berry,2000).Itisimportantforconsumerstofeelthatbrandshavepositivebehaviorandattitudestowardsthem(Blackston,1992,1993).Peoplewanttodealwithcompaniestheyseeasinnovative,ambitious,ingeniousandhard-working(Blackston,1993)andtheyexpectemotionalbene tsfromthebrandstheyarepurchasing(PawleandCooper,2006).Researchsuggeststhattheperceivedpersonalityofbrandscanin uencethestrengthoftherelationshipconsumersformwiththesebrandsovertime(Aakeretal.,2004).Itisalsobeenproventhatwhenconsumersfeelabrandhasthedesiredattitudetowardstheissuestheyperceiveasimportanttotheirsystemofvalues,theytendtosupportandbuyit(Kates,2000).Accordingtotheliterature,,especiallyinwell-de ,gaymendevelopspeci (communitymembers),theyhavepositiveemotionsandreciprocitytowardssomebrands(politicalallies),whiletheyhaveanegativerelationshipwithotherbrands(politicalenemies)(Kates,2000).Ithasalsobeensuggestedthatevenchildrendeveloprelationshipswithbrandsandtheconnectionswithbrandsaredevelopingstronglinksbetweenmiddlechildhoodandearlyadolescence(ChaplinandJohn,2005)andthatchildhoodmemoriesin uencethemannerinwhichtheyrelatetobrandsforlife(Braun-LaTouretal.,2007).Thebrand–consumerrelationshipmighttakeanumberofforms,dependingonthepersonalityofconsumersandthemannerinwhichtheseindividualsdeveloprelationships(Fournier,1998).Theydescribethemasbeinginapointinacontinuum,havingasextremesthelower-orderrelationshipsandintheotherthehigher-order(loyal) vepotentialstagesinthefriendship,frompotentialfriends(brandtrying),casualfriends(brandliking),closefriends(multi-brandresurgentloyalty),bestfriends(brandloyalty)andcrucialfriends(brandaddiction)(FajerandSchouten,1995).Amoredetailedstudyoftheconsumer’sperspectiveidenti esatleast fteenformsofrelationshipandtheirlabelsvaryfromanarrangedmarriage,manytypesoffriendshipstoenslavement,resultinginrelationshipswithdifferentqualities(Fournier,1998;SweeneyandChew,2002).The
, teachspeci ,inasense,consumptionbecomesproduction(Christensenetal.,2005).Anyadmirerthathasarelationshipwithotheradmirersofaspeci ,(MuninzandO'Guinn,2001),totheextentthatsomediscussbrandhijack(Wathieuetal.,2002;CovaandPace,2006).Forexample,whenloyalconsumersofCrownPilotcrackersdiscoveredthatNabiscohadceasedproductionoftheirbelovedproduct,“newsocialmovement”.Whilethepassionofcampaignorganizersandconsumersforthecrackerwasofparamountimportance,theanalysisalsoshedlightonacomplexinterplayoffactorsthatcoalesced,savingthisproductfromextinction(Hartetal.,2001).ConsumerssupportingtheAppleNewtonwhenitwasdiscontinued(MunizandSchau,2005),aswellas“ClassicCoke”whenCocaColaattemptedtointroducetheNewCokein1985(Harley,1998),totheextentthatcompanieswereforcedtobringdiscontinuedproductsbackonthemarket,,(Kozinetsetal.,2004)discusshowconsumersandproducersnegotiateconsump-tion, ,.,(2003)analyzethe“FireofDesire”'semotions(BodenandWilliams,2002).Avarietyofthemesandissuesareraised:thepersistenceofmind/body,reason/emotiondualitiesintheconsumptionliterature,theimportanceof‘disappointment’incon-sumerculture,externalfactorswhichmediatetheconsumptionexperience,and nallytheinterpretationofbothRomanticismandromantic,,theyhighlighttheneedfora‘passionate’sociology,,con-sumption-relatedattitudes,(1995)examineswhethertheaccumulationandanticipatedaccumulationofdifferenttypesofconsumergoodsfostersubjectivewell-being,-beingandtheincome–subjectivewell-beingrelationshipwasoverdrawn, lldifferentnichesinindividuals’,—andbyoppositiontomoderntheorieswhichconceivedthesocietyasjointsocialandprofessionalgroups,categoriesandclasses—emergesanetworkofsocietalmicro-groups(tribes)inwhichindividualssharestrongemotionallinks,(McGee-Cooper,2005).Theword“tribe”referstothere-emergenceofquasi-archaicvalues:alocalsenseofidenti cation,religiousness,syncretism,groupnarcissism(Cova,1997).Postmoderncommunitiesareinherentlyunstable,small-scale,andnot xedbyanyoftheestablishedparametersofmodernsociety(Maffesoli,1996).Incontrasttoamarketsegment,atribeisanetworkofheterogeneouspersons,intermsofgender,age,sexandincome,,neo-tribesnolonger tintoprede nedcate-gories,whichmakestheirbehaviorpredictable(Cova,1997).Tribesdifferfrompsychographicsegmentsintheirshortlifespananddiversity,divergingfromreferencegroupsbecausetheydonotfocusonthenormativein uencesofthegroupnordoindividualgroupmembersfocusoneachother(CovaandCova,2002).Althoughconveyingthesamecharacteristicsasan“ethnicgroup”,tribesareofasmallerscale;however, nethemselvesandexpresstheiridentitieswithinsociety(Lannon,1995).Theydeveloprelationshipsbetweenthemselves,thebrand,the rm,otherconsumersandtheproductinuse(McAlexanderetal.,2002).Theyseeksatisfactionthroughemotionssharedwithothers,throughbeingwiththem,notthroughconsumingwiththem(Cova,1997).Thegroupsofconsumerscreatedaroundonebrandarethebrandtribesorbrandcommunities(CovaandPace,2006)butsomeothersseemtocallthemsub-culturesofconsumption(Fournier,1998;FournierandYao,1997;SchoutenandMcAlexander,2005).(MuninzandO'Guinn,1995,2001).Thereisastrongconnectionbetweenbrand,,andmoreprecisely,abrandcommunityisasanenduring,selfselectedgroupofconsumers,sharingasystemofvalues,standardsandrepresentations,(MuninzandO'Guinn,2001)andtheyin uenceeachother(Algesheimeretal.,2005).Somesuggestthatsub-culturalgroupsbasedonethnicorigincanformbrandcommunities(QuinnandDevasagayam,2005).Brandcommunitiesareformingnotonlyintheonlineenvironmentorforluxurybrandsbutforalltypesofbrand,
, uencetherelationshipsindividualsdevelopwiththisbrand(Swaminathanetal.,2007).Consumersreporthigherbrandconnectionsforbrandswithimagesthatareconsistentwiththeimageofingroupandviceversa(EscalasandBettman,2005).However,:evenforfastmovingconsumergoodproducts(CovaandPace,2006).Becauseofthepowerbrandcommunitieshaveoverthebrand,managersoftentrytocreatebrandcommunitiesortoin uencetheirmembers(CovaandCova,2002).,ratherthanassessmentofitsfeaturesandbene ts,“makingandlivingtogether”(CovaandCova,2001).,takinganextendedlinkoftimetoattainasocializedexpressionthatconstitutesatribalbrand(Moutinhoetal.,2007).Tosucceedintheeraoftrustnetworks,,visibleandinvisible,withwhichmembersidentify:,membersarereadytosacri cetimeandmoney(BadotandCova,2003).(Eschetal.,2006).Whenthenewactive,knowledgeableanddemandingconsumerisanalyzed,ithasbeenproventhattheproduct/serviceperceptionscouldin uencetheconsumerrelation-shipquality(Stuart-Mentethetal.,2006)Thetwoconstructshavebeenexaminedtogetherinotherstudies,buttheirdirectrelationshiphasnotalwaysbeeninvestigated(,2006).However,(Chaudhuri,1999;GounarisandStathakopoulos,2004).Giventheserelated ndingsandthelackofresearchinthisarea,thehypothesisisthat:,,aspowerfulword-of-mouthcommunicationsfromin uentialorinspirationalconsumerspassingvirallyaroundcommunities(PawleandCooper,2006).Evenearlyresearchsuggeststhatothermembersofthesocialnetworktheybelongtoin ,anexploratorystudyon,ifandhowinformalsocialgroupsin uencethebrandpreferencesoftheirmembers(Stafford,1966)suggeststhatsuchgroupsandtheinformalleader,ratherthantothecohesivenessofthegroup,in uenceotherconsumersisnotindependentfromtothepro leoftheindividuals,suchashousewivesandstudents(Parketal.,1977).Otherstudiesfurthersupportedthese ndings(,1982;ChildersandRao,1992).Forexample,inanexaminationofdifferencesinperceptionsofreferencegroupin uenceon16productandbranddecisions,differencesinreferencegroupin uencebetweenpubliclyandprivatelyconsumedproductsandluxuriesandnecessitiesareevident(BeardenandEtzel,1982).InareplicationofthisstudyintheUSandThailand,andafterintroducingthein uenceofthefamilyandinter-generationalin uencesacrossthetwocultures,thereismoreevidencethatdifferencesexistisproduced(ChildersandRao,1992).ResearchalsosuggeststhatthepreferencesforJapanese-madecarsarerelatedtonetworksde nedgeographicallyanddemographically(YangandAllenby,2003)., cally,the nalmeasuresareasfollows(seeAppendix):• rstwasBrandReputationandconsistedof3itemsandthesecondSustainableImageandconsistedof2items.•,ifany,(2001)emphasizelinkingvalue,,suchasMoutinhoetal.(2007),useafactorstructure,suchasbrandliking,sponsorfavorability,perceptionoffairnessinsponsorship,positiveconvergenceinsponsorship,,(researchsub-constructs)areused,whichcomplywithlimitedresearchstandardsofotherexistingstudies(ReferencegroupacceptanceandSocialvisibilityofbrandwith5and3itemsrespectively). twiththeindividualconsumerlifestyle,thecontributionthatthebrandmakestotheemotionallifeoftheconsumer(PassioninLife)andanotherindirectmeasureofgroupbonding,CollectiveMemory,with4,2and2itemsrespectively.•,,.
, brandrelationshipsthroughtheinvestigationofbrandlove( Degreeof ,includingtheself-connectionandthe ,,#,,whoexcludedsatisfactionfromapreviousinstrumentwhenattemptingtomeasurethestrengthofbrandrelationships,seemtoagreewiththisview(Gausetal.,2006).AllFormostoftheconstructsunderinvestigation,thecorrelationwassigni (Table3).Allcorrelationsarepositive, cantcorrelation, theseconstructsareeitherantecedentsto,,iftheapproachisdrawingfromtheparadigmofhumanrelationships,thenwhatisde (Hinde,1979,1981;FalkandNoonan-Warker,1985;Hinde,1995,1997).Therefore,tomeasurethestrengthoftherelationshipthisstudyusestwodimensionsintroducedbyVeloutsou(2007).The rstdimensionistheTwo-waycommunicationsandhas6items, nalinstrument,,tookplaceoveraperiodofthreemonthsinGlasgow, rsttwomonths,theresearchinstrumentwasdevelopedandpre-tested,whileinthe nalmonththequantitativedatawascollected, -studentrespondents,, ectswithadegreeofacceptablestandarddeviation(approximately2%),thedemographicpro leoftheinhabitantsofthecityofGlasgow(2005populationrecords).ThismatchingbetweenachievedsampleintheTable1CharacteristicsofthesampleNo% CrombachAlpha.#,,thenatureandsubjectofinvestigationwasmorepronetobereadilyacceptedbyyoungerpeopleselectedforthestudy,becausetherespondentschoseeithercarsorsoftdrinkswhencompletingthesurvey(Table1).Priortoexecutinganystatisticaltests,'s ,Cronbach',,thisstudyusesstepwiselinearregressionanalysistoidentifythevariablespredictingthedependentvariablesandcalculatesthevariancein ationfactor(VIF)'sAlphareliabilitycoef ,(Table2)., .
, cally,thePassioninLifehasthestrongestrelationshipwiththeDegreeof twithlifestyle,,althoughtheyarealsohighlyinter-correlated, ,withtheexceptionoftheircorrelationtoCollectiveMemory,whichislowerandforTwo-WayCommunicationnotsigni ,-collinearityisnotproblematicbecauseallvariancein ationfactor(VIF)valuesarebelow10,thebenchmarksuggestedbyNeteretal.(1990).Intheregressionanalysis,onlysomeoftheproposedrelationshipswerenotstatisticallysigni cant(Tables4and5).Therefore,revisedmodelsweredeveloped,wherethelinksamongvariablesnotstatisticallysigni ndwaystoin uencebrandcommunities,,,astheywillbeofferingbrandsthatwilldeveloptheirowncharacter,,,suchasmasscommunication,constantlydrops,brandteamsmightneedto ndnewinnovativewaystokeepsomecontroloverthereputationoftheirbrands,, uencetherelationshipswithbrands,-WayCommunicationandEmotionalExchange,reportingboththefullandtherevisedmodelasextracted,,itisapparentthatthebestpredictorsaretheBrandTribalismvariables, uentialfactorsinthedeterminationofTwo-WayCommunicationandtheEmotionalExchange,withPassioninLifehavinganevenmoresigni , ,theconceptofBrandRelationshipisincreasinglyreceivingTable4Two-waycommunicationFullmodelRevisedmodelstbtToleranceVIFstbtToleranceVIFLongTermBrandReputation Degreeof −− Signi .#Signi # # Degreeof −− Signi .#Signi liations,,somethingelseistakingplacehere,-selves,’sbrandsuccesslaysonthedevelopmentofrelationshipsbetweenthebrandsandtheconsumersaswellasthebrand’sownershipandconsumptionexperienceininformalbrandcommunities,,,onitsown,isaninteresting ,sincetherelationshipconsumersbuild
, uencedbyotherconsumers,thatconsumethebrand, denceinproducersfromthepartofconsumers, ,thePassioninLifeattribute,triggersthedegreeof twithspeci cconsumers’ uenceconsumers;CollectiveMemoryofconsumers,whichmanyre ,thecontributionofthebrandtotheimprovementofconsumers’“bottom-up”,aswellastheirownacceptanceofaparticularreferencegroupmembership,willhelpinthedevelopmentoftrueemotionalexchangeandtruetwo-waycommunicationbetweenbrandsandconsumersAlthough,asexpected,factorssuchastheDegreeofFitwithconsumerlifestyles,theSocialVisibilityoftheBrandandtheBrandReputationitselfallhaveanimpactontheformationofbrandrelationships,theeffectivecontributionofthebrandtoameliorateconsumerlives(PassioninLife)“mattertomind”, ,,,, liationwiththecommunitywasdecidedontheextentinwhichrespondentsidenti ,assupposedtospontaneouschoiceofabrandtowhichtheyfeeltheyaremoreaf ,studentscollectedthedataandthiscouldhavein ndingsofthisresearchcouldbecontextspeci ,•Thisbrandistrustworthy•Thisbrandisreputable•ThisbrandmakeshonestclaimsSustainableImage•Thisbrandhasalonglastingnature•Inthepast,todayandinthefuture,thevaluesbehindthisbrandwillnotchangeBrandTribalismDegreeof twithlifestyle•Thisbrandisrightforme•Usingthisbranddoessomethinggoodforme•Thisbrand tsmyimage•ThisbrandisrelatedtothewayIperceivelifePassioninLife•Thisbrandmakesacontributioninlife•ThereissomethingaboutthisbrandthatgoesbeyonditstangiblecharacteristicsReferencegroupacceptance•IwouldbuythisbrandbecauseIamsurethatmyfriendsapproveofit•Iamveryloyaltothisbrandbecausemyfriendsalsouseit•MyfriendsbuythisbrandandIbuyittoojustbecauseIwanttobelikethem•Iachieveasenseofbelongingbybuyingthesamebrandmyfriendsbuy•IoftendiscusswithfriendsaboutthisbrandSocialVisibilityofBrand•WhereverIgo,thisbrandispresent•Iknowofmanypeoplewhoown/usethisbrand•IknowthatpeoplefeelgoodaboutthisbrandCollectiveMemory•Whenmyfriendsbuythisproducttheyconsiderthispurchase•WhenmyfriendsbuythisproducttheychoosethisbrandBrandRelationshipTwoWayCommunications•Iwanttobeinformedaboutthisbrand•Iammorewillingtolearnnewsaboutthisbrandthanotherbrands•Ilistenwithinteresttoinformationaboutthisbrand•Iflea etsaresenttomefromthisbrand,Igetannoyed•Iwillbewillingtobeinformedaboutthisbrandinthefuture•IamwillingtogivefeedbacktothemanufacturerofthisbrandEmotionalExchange•Thisbrandmeansmoretomethanotherbrands•Icareaboutthedevelopmentsrelevanttothisbrand•ThisbrandandIcomplementeachother•Ifeelcomfortablewiththisbrand•ThisbrandislikeapersonwithwhomIamcloseto•BoththisbrandofcolaandIbene tfromourlink•OvertimethisbrandbecomesmoreimportanttomeReferencesAakerD,;54:27–41(January).AakerJ,FournierS,;31:1–16(June).
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