行銷管理授課講義
邱志聖
政大國貿系
Spring, 2003
行銷管理/邱
definition and types
Markets
1-2
Markets: all individuals and organizations with the potential desire and ability to acquire a particular good or service.
Types of Markets
Consumer Markets
Business-to-Business Markets
Non-profit Markets
Internal Markets
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
that provides customer utility
Marketing Creates Exchange
1-3
Exchange: a process facilitated by the marketing function in which two or more parties provide something of value to the other.
Utility: the want-satisfying potential of a good or service.
Four Fundamental Types:
Form
Place
Time
Ownership
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
concept
The Marketing
1-4
THE MARKETING CONCEPT
The Purpose of Marketing
To understand the customer’s needs and wants
To create customer value through satisfaction and quality
To operate more effectively and efficiently than competitors
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
process
Marketing Strategy
1-5
Targeting
Analyzing the Competitive Situation
Positioning
Developing the Marketing Mix
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
生產、銷售與行銷導向觀念：
生產導向觀念
銷售導向觀念
行銷導向觀念
把產品做到最
好，就能順利
賣出產品
有一群人銷售
力強的銷售人
員，無論任何
產品皆能順利
賣出
以買者需求為
發展任何產品
的基礎
行銷管理/邱
into the 21st century
Marketing Themes
1-7
Building Relationships
Matching Technology
Appreciating Diversity
Extending Globally
Maintaining Ethics
Connecting with Customers:
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
types
Marketing Exchange
1-8
Pure Transaction
Repeated Transaction
Relationships
One-time exchange of value
Preference and loyalty
Interactive, ongoing, two-way connections
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
is
Marketing
1-1
The Marketing Mix
(The 4 Ps)
Product
Price
Promotion
Place
Combined with
The Firm Target Markets
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
that produce quality goods and services
Creates Relationships
Organizational Systems
Satisfaction
Loyalty
Use Technology to Create
Customer Value
Quality
2-1
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
satisfaction and loyalty
Marketers Strive for
2-2
lifetime value of a customer to the firm: the amount of profit a company can expect to reap over the course of the relationship.
customer loyalty: a measure of how often customers purchase a particular brand as they select from a product class.
customer satisfaction: customers?positive, neutral, or negative feelings about the value they receive as a result of using a particular organization offering in specific situations.
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
with customers
Creating Personal Relationships
Exhibit Empathy
Develop Trust
Maintain Commitment
Reward Loyalty
2-4
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
quality
The Nature of
Quality = the degree of excellence that products/services exhibit
Subjective Assessments (consumer perceptions)
Objective Assessment (industry or benchmarks)
Static (status quo)
Dynamic (continuous improvement)
2-5
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
行銷環境概論
環境產生市場機會與威脅
Affects Market Size
Direct Influences on Specific Marketing Activities
環境監視（Environmental Scanning）
Identifying relevant factors and trends and assessing their potential impact on organization’s markets and marketing activities
行銷管理/邱
Developing Marketing Strategy
Selecting and Analyzing a Target Market
Creating and Maintaining a Marketing Mix
Product
place
price
promotion
行銷管理/邱
行銷所面對的大環境
社會環境
人口統計環境
文化環境
經濟環境
政治與法律環境
技術環境
競爭環境
機構環境
行銷管理/邱
社會環境(I)
人口統計環境
Population growth
Population Density
Urbanization
Age Structure
家庭結構
Double income, Core family, Single parent
行銷管理/邱
社會環境(II)
文化環境
Cultural diversity
Changing roles
Emphasize on health and fitness
Desire for convenience
Consumerism
Environmentalism
Popular culture
行銷管理/邱
經濟環境
Income
GDP
Per capita income
Disposable income
Income distribution
Wealth
Economy growth
行銷管理/邱
政治與法律環境
全球政治環境
Toward free market economies
Free trade
WTO, EU, NAFTA, APEC
Embargoes and sanctions are still used frequently
法律環境
公平交易法
限制競爭行為
不公平競爭行為
不當多層次傳銷
消費者保護法
食品衛生相關法律
行銷管理/邱
技術環境
Internet
Communication Technology
Transportation Technology
Product Technology Vs. Process Technology
行銷管理/邱
競爭環境
品牌競爭者
產品競爭者
競爭的五個來源(Porter 1980)
Bargaining power of buyers
Bargaining power of suppliers
Substitutes
Potential entrants
Rivalry Among existing firms
行銷管理/邱
機構環境
定義
Consist of all the organizations involved in marketing products and services
包含
Marketing research firms, advertising agencies, wholesalers, retailers, suppliers, and customers
趨勢
Downsizing (outsourcing)
Consolidation (for EOS)
Virtual organizations
Relationship perspectives
行銷管理/邱
策略計畫（The Strategic Planning）
組織階層（Organizational Levels）
總公司階層(Corporate)
Corporate strategic plan
事業單位階層(Business)
Business strategic plan
功能單位階層(Marketing)
Marketing strategic plan
行銷管理/邱
總公司所要制訂的策略決策（Corporate Strategy Decisions）
Vision
Objectives and resource allocation
Corporate growth strategies
Business-Unit Composition
行銷管理/邱
Vision
核心價值（Core value）
Are the small set of guiding principles that represent the enduring tenets of an organization
核心目的（Core purpose）
Reflects the company’s reason for being or its essential motivation for doing work
使命宣言（Mission Statement）
To communicate the corporate vision to all interest parties
行銷管理/邱
CORPORATE GROWTH STRATEGIES
Products
Same New
Markets
Same
New
Market
Penetration
Product
Expansion
Market
Development
Diversification
3-19
行銷管理/邱
Product
Market
Growth
(%)
High
Low
Relative Market
Share
3-8
Question Mark
5. Simple Growth-Share Matrix (Completed)
Dog
Cash Cow
Star
High
Low
行銷管理/邱
事業單位階層的策略決策（Business Strategy Decisions）
Market Scope
Competitive Advantage
Cost strategy
Differential strategy
General Business Strategies
Market scope X competitive strategy
行銷管理/邱
行銷功能單位決策
行
銷
環
境
分
析
行
銷
策
略
行
銷
工
具
環境分析
市場區隔(Segmentation)
大環境分析
產業分析
買者需求分析
選擇目標市場(Target Market)
定位 (Positioning)
產品
定價
通路
推廣
行銷管理/邱
策略計畫的執行（Executing Strategic plans）
Cross-Functional teamwork
Marketing Teamwork
Co-Marketing Alliances
行銷管理/邱
Cross-Functional teamwork
Marketing: To attract and retain customers
Production: To produce products at the lowest cost
Finance: To keep within budgets
Accounting: To standardize financial reports
Purchasing: To purchase products at lowest cost
R&D: To develop newest technology
Engineering: To design product specification
行銷管理/邱
types
行銷規劃（Market Planning）
4-1
Marketing Aspect
Type of Planning
Responsibility
Marketing as a philosophy
（哲學）
Marketing as a strategy
（策略）
Marketing as a tactic
（戰術）
Vision （願景）
Strategic marketing plan （策略行銷計畫）
Marketing mix plans
（行銷組合計畫）
Top executives and top management team
Marketing executive and other members of the strategic marketing team
Managers responsible for product, price, promotion, and place programs
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
市場區隔與目標市場
定義產品市場
選擇區隔基礎
定義區隔市場
評估各目標市場
選擇目標市場
決定定位策略並寫下產品概念
發展細部的行銷組合
行銷管理/邱
產品市場
定義
Needs for product
ability
willingness
authority
注意事項
由消費者的 Needs and Wants 想起
替代性
寧可大不可小
行銷管理/邱
區隔與目標市場選擇
Segmentation
Subdividing a market into subsets of customers who behave similarly
Have similar needs
Have similar characteristics that relate to purchase behaviors
Targeting
Selecting subset(s) of customers on which are best to focus resources
Design marketing mixes for those segments
7-1
行銷管理/邱
定位（Positioning）
Designing a marketing program (including marketing mix) that is consistent with how the firm wants its products perceived distinguish from other brands
7-4
行銷管理/邱
有效區隔的條件
Measurability
Accessibility
Substantialness
Durability
Differential responsiveness
7-5
行銷管理/邱
選擇目標市場
大小與成長性
市場估計
種類
Market potential
Company sales potential
競爭分析
成本效益分析
領先示範特質
公司目標與資源相符程度
行銷管理/邱
BASES FOR SEGMENTATION
Consumer Marketing
User Related
Demographics
Social Class
Geographic
Lifestyles &
Psychographics
Behavioral
Benefits
Usage
Price
Brand
Situational
7-12
行銷管理/邱
BASES FOR SEGMENTATION
Business-to-Business
User Related
Customer Size/Location
Buying Process
Decision Criteria
Type of Organization
Behavioral
End Use
Usage
7-13
行銷管理/邱
A TWO-STAGE SEGMENTATION EXAMPLE
Stage 1
Initial
Segmentation
Stage 2
Supplemental
Segmentation
descriptors
Managerial decisions
Usage:
Heavy vs.
Light
Demographics:
Income, education
Media Selection
(. magazines,
TV programs
Lifestyles
Advertising
Content
(., conservative,
Youthful appeals
& messages
7-14
行銷管理/邱
Target Marketing Strategies
Undifferentiated Strategy
Company Mix
Differentiated Strategy
Marketing Mix 1
Marketing Mix 2
Marketing Mix 3
Concentrated Strategy
Company Marketing Mix
Segment 1
Segment 2
Segment 3
Segment 1
Segment 2
Segment 3
Market
7-16
行銷管理/邱
決定定位策略並寫下產品概念
定位的步驟
Identify the attributes
Diagram the most important dimensions on a map
Locate the brands on the map
Identify the ideal position for buyers
determine the fundamental way to position the product
定位(positioning) vs. 產品概念(Product concept)
行銷管理/邱
產品\品牌概念(Product Concept)
定義
problems
what
how
行銷管理/邱
產品概念與行銷組合的關係
產品
定價
通路
推廣
產品概念
行銷管理/邱
銷售潛力預估（ESTIMATING SALES POTENTIAL）
Market Potential
Maximum amount of industry sales possible for a product or service for a specific period
Market Forecast
For that same period is a function of amount of marketing effort put forth by all companies competing in the market
Sales Potential
Maximum amount of company sales possible for a product or service for a specific period
Sales Forecast
Amount the company can expect to sell over specified time period
7-19
行銷管理/邱
Developing Sales Forecasts
Purpose
evaluate opportunities
budget marketing efforts
control expenditures
assess subsequent sales performances
7-20
行銷管理/邱
Sales Forecasts Methods
Qualitative Procedures
Buyers intentions
Expert opinion
Composite of sales force estimates
Quantitative Procedures
Trend analysis (time series analysis)
Market tests
Statistical demand analysis
7-21
行銷管理/邱
MICROMARKETING
Ultimate Target Marketing
Combines Multiple Information Sources
Demographic Descriptors
Values, Preferences, and Purchasing Habits
Pinpoints Desired Customers
Helps Increase Marketing Effectiveness
7-24
行銷管理/邱
行銷研究的程序（MARKETING RESEARCH PROCES*S）
Problem Definition
Determine Research Design
Determine Data Types
Determine Data Collection Methods
Development of Data Collection Forms
Sample Design
Data Collection, Analysis and Interpretation
行銷管理/邱
研究設計（Research Design）
探索性研究
敘述性研究
因果性研究
行銷管理/邱
資料種類（Data Types）
Primary Data
Secondary Data
Internal Data
Company records
Data from marketing design support systems
External Data
Proprietary
Custom research
Syndicated services
Non-Proprietary
Published reports
Census data
Periodicals
行銷管理/邱
資料收集的方法（Data Collection Methods）
Focus Group
Telephone Surveys
Mail Surveys
Personal Interviews
Mall intercepts
Internet Surveys
Observation
6-14
行銷管理/邱
問卷設計注意事項
Double-barreled wordings
Loaded wording
Ambiguous wording
Inappropriate vocabulary
Missing alternatives
行銷管理/邱
抽樣設計（Sample Design）
Probability
Probability sampling
Simple random sampling
Stratified sampling
Nonprobability sampling
Sampling frame
The outline or working description of the population used in the sample selection
Sample size
Response rates
Completion / Completion+refusals+terminations
行銷管理/邱
Marketing Decision Support Systems (MDSS)
All activities regularly used to process and provide marketing information
Includes software and hardware
行銷管理/邱
Database Marketing
Refers to customer / prospect information stored in computer with software to process information
Ability to pull apart and recombine information
行銷管理/邱
消費者行為(Consumer Behavior)
定義
個人或家庭對於產品的發掘、評估、取得、消費、與去除的行為與決策。
影響消費者決策的因素
個人因素
社會因素
情境因素
行銷管理/邱
消費者決策過程
問題確認
資訊收尋
購買可能方案評估
決定與購買
購買後使用結果評價
行銷管理/邱
涉入（Involvement）
定義
對於產品的發掘、評估、取得、消費、與去除等行為與決策的關心程度
涉入程度（Level of Involvement）形成原因
經濟風險
社會心理風險
功能表現風險
行銷管理/邱
消費者問題解決
方式
Routinized response behavior
Extensive problem solving
Limited problem solving
與涉入的關係
行銷管理/邱
AIETA
Awareness (知曉）
Interest（興趣）
Evaluation （評估）
Trial （試用）
Adoption （採用）
行銷管理/邱
消費者行為的重要構念
知覺(Perception)
學習(Learning)
態度(Attitude)
行銷管理/邱
知覺(Perception)
Definition: 是一種過程，個人經過這項過程來從環境中選擇、組織及解釋輸入的訊息
Procedure
暴露
注意
解釋
記憶
行銷管理/邱
學習
Definition
由過去行為經驗所產生的一種較長期的行為改變
學習狀況
高涉入 --> 認知學習 (Cognitive learning)
低涉入 ---> 制約 (Classical Conditioning)
制約
Classical conditioning（古典制約）
Operant conditioning （操作制約）
行銷管理/邱
態度組成
情感（Affective）
認知（Cognitive）
行為（Behavior）
行銷管理/邱
態度組成的一致性
認知 -> 情感 & 行為
情感 ->認知 & 行為
行為 ->情感 & 認知
行銷管理/邱
Attitude Change Strategy
Affective Component
classical conditioning
affect toward the Ad
Mere exposure
Behavior component
Free sample
Forced usage
Cognitive Component
Change beliefs
add beliefs
shift importance
行銷管理/邱
影響消費者決策的個人因素
個人特質(Personality)
生活形態 (Lifestyles)
動機(Motivation)
行銷管理/邱
Maslow’s Hierachy of Needs
Physiological
needs
Safety
needs
Social and
love needs
Self-esteem
needs
Self-actual-
ization needs
Level 5
Level 4
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Food, water,
air
Security,
protection
from harm
Acceptance,
affection,
feelings of
belonging,
friendship
Feelings of
self-worth,
success,
prestige
Becoming all
that one is
capable of
being --
self-fulfillment
4-25
行銷管理/邱
影響消費者決策的社會因素
文化
次文化
社會階層
人際間影響
家庭
行銷管理/邱
人際間對消費行為的影響
參考群體
某一群人的規範與價值可以影響你的行為
Types
會員團體(Membership)
欲望團體(Associative)
避免團體(Disassociative)
行銷管理/邱
人際間對消費行為的影響路徑
資訊影響(Informational Influences)
規範影響(Normative influences)
價值認同影響(Value expressive influences)
行銷管理/邱
家庭對消費行為的影響
家庭生命週期
Young singles
New couples
Full-nesters
Young children
Adolescents
Empty nesters
Working
Retired
Sole survivors
行銷管理/邱
情境因素對消費行為的影響
Anticipated situations
Gift giving
Social occasions
Unanticipated occurrences
Time pressures
Unexpected expense
Change plans
行銷管理/邱
消費者滿意與購後失調
消費者滿意(Satisfaction)的決定因素
購前期望
產品/服務實際表現
失驗（Disconfirmation)
購後失調(Post-Purchase Dissonance)
Is a feeling of uneasiness that results when there is a conflict between two or more behaviors or beliefs
行銷管理/邱
組織（工業）市場
Type
Producer markets(生產者市場）
Reseller Markets（中間商市場）
Government Markets（政府市場）
Institutional Markets （非營利機構市場）
8-3
組織購買者市場與消費者市場之比較
特性
組織購買者市場
消費者市場
買者數目
Few
Long-term contracts and supplier involvement
Often extremely large
Usually near population centers
Technically trained buying agents follow policies and constraints. Tend to buy directly from manufacturers Committees, technical experts and management involved in decisions
Often millions
Many single purchases
Usually small
Widely dispersed
Nontechnical purchasing to satisfy personal preferences Individuals, households members, or friends and relatives
採購影響
採購方式
地理集中度
採購量
與供應商的關係
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
組織（工業）市場採購者特色
Better informed, need detailed information
More rational
Organizational goal + personal goal
組織（工業）市場採購者最重視的因素
Price
Quality
Service
組織購買者採購情境與方式
8-8
Type
Description
People Involved
直接重購
（Straight rebuy）
Reorder from current supplier
One purchasing agent
修正後重購
（Modified rebuy）
新任務採購
（New task）
Evaluate alternative suppliers of previously purchased products or a new/different product from a current supplier
Purchasing agent plus one or a few others
First-time product purchase
Many people from several areas of the organization
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
工業產品需求的特性
Derived demand
Inelastic demand
Joint demand
Demand fluctuation
工業市場採購決策之參與者
參與者
使用者(Users)
影響者(Influencers)
把關者(Gatekeepers)
決定者(Deciders)
採購者(Buyers)
組織購買者市場的連結：供應鏈
8-5
Supply chains link all organizations involved in creating and delivering of a product
The automotive supply chain:
上游廠商
下游廠商
Mining company
(steel from ore)
Upstream supplier
(fasteners)
Direct supplier
(radiators)
Ford Chrystler Toyota GM Nissan Honda
(autos)
Auto dealerships
Rental agencies
Auto purchasers
Traveler
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
傳統行銷架構的問題
程序導向
比較注重交易前的行銷活動
缺乏成本觀念
缺乏因果的訓練
見樹不見林
行銷管理/邱
行銷管理/邱
整體策略觀點的行銷架構
理論基礎
結構交換理論
交換之產生乃源自於交換雙方期待該交換行為對自己有利
Benefit > Cost Exchange
交易成本理論
因為人性的機會主義與環境的複雜與不確定性，造成交易無法很有效率的完成
代理成本理論
委託人與代理人間的目標不盡相同
委託人擔心代理人會不遵守合約，矇騙欺瞞。
行銷管理/邱
整體策略觀點的行銷架構主要變數
主要變數
外顯單位效益成本
買者資訊搜尋成本
買者道德危機成本
買者專屬陷入成本
買者最終總成本概念
個別成本的劣勢往往可以借由其他成本優勢來補足
行銷管理/邱
外顯單位效益成本
定義
買者所需付出的產品取得總成本除以產品所帶給的所有的效益之總和
注意事項
產品可能是有形的商品或無形服務
效益包含有形或無形效益
產品取得總成本包含賣價、運費、安裝、服務、手續費等等
行銷管理/邱
買者資訊搜尋成本
定義
因為買賣雙方對交換標的物不熟悉，因此需投入時間及金錢蒐集資訊以減少交換的資訊不對稱，也就是一個買者在買一個東西之前，為了去了解此一標的物，他勢必得花一段時間、成本來搜集資訊，同樣的，對賣方而言，也必需花一些搜尋成本來尋找適當的買方
行銷管理/邱
買者道德危機成本
定義
此成本指的是產品是否真正能表現得像廠商在交換完成前所宣稱的功能其中所談的，也是說就算交易之前買賣雙方對交易標的物都已經十分清楚的來從事交易，但交易之後，賣方是否能夠遵守原先承諾的功能、規格，而買方是否能夠在交易後提供原先所承諾付出之物
行銷管理/邱
買者專屬陷入成本
定義
買賣雙方怕因為交易的形成後產生的專屬資產的成本，專屬資產是指交易的形成後買賣雙方因為此關係所產生的特有的無形知識或有形資產，當此特定的買賣雙方交易不存在時，此特有的無形知識或有形資產的價值將消失，因此，為保持專屬資產的價值性，買賣雙方繼續交易
行銷管理/邱
業界常用專屬資產的方法
品牌特有群體壓力、特有意見領袖吸引力
特有無形社會壓力的專屬資產
特有的品牌經驗、特有的品牌回憶、特有品牌心理意義
心理層面的認同專屬資產
特有信用資產、特有買者知識、特有人際關係、特有溝通效率、特有生活依歸
無形的專屬資產
里程數累積優惠、集點紅利、累計金額優惠、紅標與綠標的定價策略
忠誠客戶的優惠專屬資產
系統DIY產品、特有耗材、特有公司規格、特有資訊系統結合、特有配方、特有設備專利、特有軟體
特有的實體設備的專屬資產
公司特有的產品使用方法、公司特有軟體、公司特有產品系列分法與使用方法、公司特有互補品使用方法、特有使用專利權
特有的使用知識的專屬資產
業界常用的方法
專屬資產
行銷管理/邱
Exercise（I）
假若有一家台灣工具機的廠商，要到海外市場把它所生產的工具機賣給國外生產廠商成為它們生產工具機，該家公司的主要競爭者來自美國、德國、及日本等國際大廠。經過實際產品測試，該公司發現他們的工具機比競爭對手在功能上是相當的，最重要的是，該公司工具機的價格比主要競爭對手還低上兩至三成。該家公司是剛成立的，知名度低，有用過該公司產品的廠商不多。請問該公司行銷的重點應在哪裡？在美國與在中國大陸銷售，有何不同？
行銷管理/邱
Exercise (II)
有一家新銀行想要以比較低的貸款利率來為了爭取一家大公司向它們借錢，經過幾番遊說之後，這家大公司還是不願意取消與目前往來銀行的借貸關係，轉而向該銀行借錢，假設該銀行的貸款利率真的比競爭銀行的利率低了好幾碼。請問此交易的問題可能出在哪裡？該銀行行銷的重點應在哪裡？
行銷管理/邱
4C分析架構的注意事項
4C是買者主觀的知覺成本，買者本身並不一定可以理性的將各成本明確分別
但廠商必須清楚分析可能的成本來源，以便制訂對症下藥的行銷工具與策略
產業、情境、產品的不同皆會影響四個C對一個交換的重要性不同
四個C對交換成敗的影響重要程度會因外部環境因素的不同而不同
行銷管理/邱
4C分析架構的特性
4C態勢是長期動態的
4C分析提供短期交換問題分析架構
4C分析具有長期策略觀點
4C間有可能有交互影響
4C幫助解釋傳統行銷程序的原因
行銷管理/邱
產品（Product）
定義
An idea, physical good, service or some combination of these three that is an element of exchange to satisfy individual or business objectives.”
類型
實體商品（GOODS）
服務（SERVICES）
8-1
行銷管理/邱
實體商品（GOODS）與 服務（SERVICES）的連續帶
Pure tangible good
soap, toothpaste
Tangible good with accompanying services
automobiles, computers
Balanced
restaurants
Major services with minor goods
airline services include food and drink, auto service
Pure Service
haircut, psychotherapy
8-2
行銷管理/邱
服務的特性（CHARACTERISTICS OF SERVICES）
Intangible
non-sensory: Associate with something Tangible
Perishable
cannot be stored: Off-season’s price
Inseparability
unable to be produced, then stored: Training of contact person
Variability
difficult to standardize: Standardized procedure
8-4
行銷管理/邱
消費性產品（CONSUMER PRODUCTS ）VS 商業性產品（Business Products）
消費性產品（Consumer Products）
Purchased by consumers for personal use
Convenience
Shopping
Specialty
商業性產品（Business Products）
Purchased by various types of businesses
Capital
Production
Component/subassemblies
8-5
行銷管理/邱
組織市場產品分類
9-4
資本財 CAPITAL PRODUCTS
生產財PRODUCTION PRODUCTS
零組件 、耗材、及生產服務COMPONENT S & SUBASSEMBLIES
Installations: office buildings, factories, stores, distribution centers
Equipment: drills, computers, desks, robots, lifts, trucks, airplanes
Raw Materials: crude oil, sand, gas, water, wheat, corn
Processed materials: refined oil, steel, plastic, aluminum
Operations products: brakes, transmissions, computer chips, switches, lights, cords
Operations services: consulting, accounting, waste removal, employee food services
Operating supplies: paper, pens, file folders, cleaning products
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
產品的三個層面
核心產品 (Core Products)
基本的功能與利益
品牌化產品(Branded Products)
包裝、造型、特性、品質、與品牌名稱
擴大產品 (Augmented Products)
安裝、運送、保證、維修與服務、採購條款與信用、退回與資源回收
行銷管理/邱
品牌命名注意事項
Short
Simple
Distinctive
Meaningful
Ease of pronunciation
無不好的聯想
法律因素
品牌的重要性
CONSUMER VIEWPOINT
Facilitate Buying
Psychological Benefits
MARKETER’S VIEWPOINT
Brand Identity: Brand/product concept
8-10
行銷管理/邱
品牌建立程序
Brand Awareness – recall
Brand Image – impression, accurate ideas of the brand’s advantages and positive impression
Brand Loyalty – normally purchase
Brand Equity -- value
行銷管理/邱
品牌權益（BRAND EQUITY）
定義
Value that brand has in marketplace due to reputation and goodwill
是來自於
Brand loyalty among consumers
Brand awareness, perceived quality
Strong brand associations
Assets such as patents, trademarks, and channel relationships
品牌權益的好處
Higher prices to be changed
Enables leverage with distributors
Facilitates the introduction of extension and brand extensions
8-12
行銷管理/邱
品牌名稱的種類
Types
Generics
Individual
Family
Manufacturer brand (National brand or Regional brand)
Private (Distributor brand, Store brand)
Hybrid
Alternative to Developing Brand Name
授權（Licensing）
品牌結盟（Co-Branding）
行銷管理/邱
品牌策略
9-6
Generic: no brand name used.
Individual: unique brand name for each major product or line.
Family: umbrella name covers all products in the line.
Manufacturer (National) brand name synonymous with the owner.
Private (labels): brand name applied to supplier product by wholesaler or retailer.
Hybrid: two or more approaches are used
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
use
Brand Strategy
9-7
Generic:
農產品、藥品
Individual:
P & G 旗下的產品， Tide, Bold, Cheer, Dreft, Era, Gain, Ivory, Oxydol, and Solo laundry detergent
Family:
波蜜 , Panasonic, SK II, 捷安特
Manufacturer (National)
統一, McDonald, Kodak , Johnson & Johnson, Ford, Honda
Private (Labels):
７-11, 家樂福 , 萬客隆, B＆Q
Hybrid
C
1999 by Prentice-Hall, Inc.
行銷管理/邱
品牌延伸（BRAND EXTENSIONS）
定義
New products that build on brand equity
優點
Instant Name Recognition
Establish Quality Levels
Saves on Advertising Costs
可能風險
Bad products may damage image of other products
Dilution of distinctiveness
8-18
行銷管理/邱
包裝
目的
Protect、Convenience、Promote
注意事項
成本
產品本身形象
產品促銷
中間商的方便
環保
產品安全與責任
產品責任(Product liability)
產品保證(Warranties)
產品回收(Product Recall): allows return of product to get performance or safety defect corrected
行銷管理/邱
新產品的種類（DIFFERENT TYPES OF NEW PRODUCTS）
完全新的產品（New-to-the-World Products）:First PC, First car
新產品類別產品（New-Category Entries）: Products new to the firm, but not to the world
產品線延伸產品（Additions to Product Lines）:Line extension
產品改良（Product Improvements）:
產品重新定位（Repositioning）:Products retargeted for a new use or application
行銷管理/邱
新產品來源（DIFFERENT SOURCES OF NEW PRODUCTS）
外部 （External Sources）
收購（Acquisitions）
合作方案（Various Collaborative Arrangements）
內部 （Internal Sources）
9-2
行銷管理/邱
新產品發展程序（NEW PROUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS）(I)
創意發展（Idea Generation）
Ideas的來源可能來自Customers, Product engineers, designers, Competition, Sales representatives, Other employees, Technological Changes
創意篩選（Idea Screening）
compatible with firm’s objectives and capabilities
profit potential
consumer needs
概念發展與測試（Concept Development and Testing）
Concept Test
購買意願
特殊點
知覺利益與價值
9-9
行銷管理/邱
新產品發展程序NEW PROUCT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS(II)
商業分析（Business Analysis）
Likelihood of commercial success
Costs, cash flows, profit
產品原型的發展（Prototype Development ）
試銷（Test Marketing）
Simulated Test Markets (STM)
Traditional field test markets
商品上市化（Commercialization）
買者採用階段（Adoption Process）
Awareness（知曉）
Interest（興趣）
Evaluation（評估）
Trail（試用）
Adoption（採用）
9-12
行銷管理/邱
新產品發展的行銷研究 (I)
上市前
Focus Group
Market Definition Studies
Target Segment Identification
Concept Testing
Name and Package Evaluation
Product Tests
Simulated Test Markets
Test Markets
9-20
行銷管理/邱
新產品發展的行銷研究 (II)
上市後
Awareness, Attitude Studies
Usage Studies
Tracking Studies
Product Refinement
New Advertising Strategy Tests
9-22
行銷管理/邱
成功新產品的特性
相對優點（Relative Advantage）
與既有產品的相容性（Compatibility with Existing Consumption Patterns）
可試用度（Trialability）
可觀察度（Observability）
複雜度（Complexity）
9-24
行銷管理/邱
產品擴散程序（The Diffusion Process）
Time
Noncumulative Diffusion Pattern
2 1/2%
innovators
13 1/2%
Early
adopters
34%
Early
majority
34%
Late
majority
16%
Laggards
9-29
行銷管理/邱
產品擴散程序的各種族群
創新者（Innovators） (%)
Venturesome, Higher Educated, Use Multiple Information Sources
早期採用者（Early Adopters） (%)
Leaders in social setting, Slightly above-average education
早期大眾（Early Majority） (34%)
Deliberate（仔細思考的）,Many Informal Social Contacts
晚期大眾（Late Majority） (34%)
Skeptical, Below Average Social Status
落後者（Laggards） (16%)
Fear of Debt, Neighbors and Friends Provide Information
10-2
行銷管理/邱
產品生命週期與特性
導入期（Introduction）
Sales – Low
Profit – Losses
Competition – Little
成長期（Growth）
Sales -- Rapid Growth
Profit – Increasing
Competition -- Increasing
成熟期（Maturity）
Sales – Slow Growth
Profits – Decreasing
Competition – Fierce
衰退期（Decline）
Sales – Declining
Profits – Low
Competition -- Changing
10-6
行銷管理/邱
產品生命週期各階段的策略
導入期
知曉度
試用
成長期
增加產品使用率
擴大通路
改進品質
成熟期
維持市場佔有率
延伸產品生命週期
進入新區隔
衰退期
以利潤為最高指導原則
減少開支
去除不賺錢的產品項目
若無法收支平衡則賣掉或結束掉
行銷管理/邱
產品生命週期的例子
產品種類
World Wide Web -- Growth
Newspaper – Decline
產品形式
Lap-top Computer – Growth
Electric Typewriter -- Decline
10-14
行銷管理/邱
產品生命週期應用的注意事項
預測產品形式的興衰比預測單一品牌的興衰來得準
不要宿命
只是形式預測，不知各期與整體生命週期的長短
10-15
行銷管理/邱
產品組合（PRODUCT MIX）
定義
Total Assortment of Goods and Services
產品組合寬度（Product mix width）
number of product lines in mix
產品組合長度（Product line length
number of products in product line
產品組合一致性（Product mix consistency）
relatedness of different product lines
行銷管理/邱
產品組合的擴增
向下延伸策略（Downward stretch strategy）
add products to lower end of product line
向上延伸策略（Upward stretch strategy）
add products to higher end
雙向延伸策略（Two-way stretch strategy）
add products at both high and low end
10-18
行銷管理/邱
其他產品策略相關概念
產品間侵蝕（Cannibalization）
the process of new products taking away sales from existing products
產品回收（Product Recalls）
allows return of product to get performance or safety defect corrected
產品仿冒（Product Counterfeiting）
商標、著作權、專利
行銷管理/邱
價格的概念（Pricing Concepts）
定義
The amount of money a buyer pays to a seller in exchange for products and services.”
價格的不同名詞
Fees – prices charged by professionals
Fines, rents, premiums, taxes, wages
List prices, discount prices, allowances, rebates
11-1
行銷管理/邱
價格的特性（CHARACTERISTICS OF PRICE）
The Most Flexible element of Marketing Mixes
Total Revenue = Price (x) Quantity
Price is one of the Determinant of Perceived Value
Perceived Value = Perceived Quality / Price
Price Elasticity – the responsiveness of demand to change in price
11-5
行銷管理/邱
定價的目的（PRICING OBJECTIVES）
Market Survival
Sales Growth
Profitability
Competitive Pricing
Quality and Image Enhancement
11-7
行銷管理/邱
影響定價決策的因素
Cost
Costs associated with producing, distributing, and promoting a product or service
Customers
Customer expectations and willingness to pay
Channels of distribution
adequate return of channel
Competition
Reaction of your customers
Compatibility
company objective and consistency of product lines
行銷管理/邱
顧客的價格評估
價格與品質的相關程度
價格資訊對消費者決策的影響
Best-Value Strategy (Ideal)
Price-Seeking Strategy (High Price, High Quality)
Price Aversion Strategy (Lowest Price)
價格判斷的形成
External Reference Price
Internal Reference Price
Expected Price
Reservation Price (highest price willing to pay)
The Price Last Paid
Average Retail Price
The Price Consumer Would Like to Pay
11-14
行銷管理/邱
影響顧客價格評估的因素
Budget Constraints
Price / Quality Judgments
Purchase Situations Factors (Time pressure, mood, etc)
Expected Price Range of Substitutes
Cost of Search
11-16
行銷管理/邱
價格制訂程序
Set Strategic Pricing Objectives
Estimate Demand and Price Elasticity of Demand
Determine Costs and Their Relationships to Volume and Profits
Evaluate Competitors’ Prices and Costs
Select a Method for Calculating Price
Adopt a Pricing Strategy and Set a Price Level
Adapt Price Structure to meet Variations in Demand and Costs Across Geographic Territories or Market Segments
12-3
行銷管理/邱
價格決定方法
Mark-up Pricing
Pricing where markup is difference between the cost of an item and the retail price, expressed as a percentage
Breakeven Analysis
Calculation of the number of units that must be sold at a certain price for a firm to cover costs
Target Return Pricing
Set prices to achieve a desired rate of return, with cost and profit estimates based on some expected volume or sales levels
Income-Based Pricing
The determination of price based upon the income to be generate by the product under consideration
12-8
行銷管理/邱
定價策略（PRICING STRATEGIES）(I)
差別定價
Second-Market Discounting
Different prices are charged in different market segments
Periodic Discounting
競爭定價
Penetration Pricing
A low initial price to generate sales volume and take advantage of EOS
Price Skimming
Price Signaling
Quality and price linkage
Going-Rate Pricing
12-9
行銷管理/邱
定價策略（PRICING STRATEGIES）(II)
產品線定價
Bundling
Market two or more products or services in a single package for a single price
Premium Pricing
Set higher prices on more deluxe product version
心理定價
Odd-Even Pricing
Customary Pricing
行銷管理/邱
定價的道德問題
Bait and Switch
Predatory Pricing
Unit Pricing
12-22
行銷管理/邱
行銷通路的功能
供需的吻合
量
產品種類
行銷溝通
存貨管理
實體運銷
市場訊息回饋
財務風險承擔
行銷管理/邱
通路結構種類
直接通路((Direct channel) VS 間接通路(Indirect channel)
直接通路
人員銷售、電話行銷、直銷、網路行銷等
間接通路
一、二、三等多階通路
單一或複式通路
垂直行銷系統
管理式(Administrated VMS)
契約式(Contractual VMS)
批發商支持
零售商支持
特許專賣
公司所有權式(Corporate VMS)
行銷管理/邱
通路管理（I）
設定行銷目標與策略
發展通路目標與策略
買者的偏好
關係導向程度
市場配銷分佈程度
密集配銷(Intensive distribution)
選擇性配銷(Selective distribution)
獨家配銷(Exclusive distribution)
行銷管理/邱
通路管理（II）
評估各種通路方案
通路成本與能力
通路相容性
產品考量
價格考量
行銷溝通考量
可取得性
決定通路結構
執行通路策略
評估通路績效
財務
工作關係
道德與法律
未來得考量
行銷管理/邱
工作關係
衝突
合作
通路權力來源
Reward Power（獎勵權力）
Coercive Power（威脅權力）
Legitimate Power（法律權力）
Expert Power（專家權力）
Referent Power （參考權力）
行銷管理/邱
批發業的種類
功能
服務零售商、製造商、與其他批發商
種類
商品批發商(merchant Wholesalers)
代理商、仲介商、與抽佣金商(Agents, Brokers and Commission Merchants)
製造商銷售分部與辦公室(Manufacturers’ sales branch and offices)
行銷管理/邱
商品批發商(i)
Full-Service
一般批發商((General Merchandise Wholesaler)
有限產品線批發商（Limited-line Wholesaler)
特殊產品線批發商(Specialty-line Wholesaler)
寄售中盤商(Rack Jobbers)
行銷管理/邱
商品批發商(II)
Limited-Service
付現自運批發商((Cash and Carry Wholesaler)
Wholesaler that does not extend credit for or deliver that products it sells
卡車批發商(Truck jobber)
A Wholesaler that delivers within a small geographic area to ensure freshness of goods
廠方自送批發商(Drop Shippers)
Arranges for shipment directly from the factory to the customer. It does not physically handle the product but does take the title and all associated risks while the product is in transit, as well as provide sales support.
郵購目錄批發商（Catalog wholesalers)
批發商會社(Wholesale clubs)
行銷管理/邱
代理商、抽佣金商、與仲介商
代理商(Agents)
Manufacturers’ agents
Import & export agents
抽佣金商(Commission merchants)
仲介商(Brokers)
行銷管理/邱
零售業
種類
獨立店(Independent Retailers)
公司連鎖店(Chains)
特許經營(Franchising)
租借型百貨公司(Leased Department)
合作社(Cooperatives)
行銷管理/邱
特許專賣(Franchising)
特許專賣零售者之好處
知名度
管理技術
壓低進貨成本
財務協助
行銷協助
特許專賣提供者之好處
加速成長
廣告成本
特許專賣零售者自動自發
不用理會地方性事物
行銷管理/邱
運籌管理(Logistics Management)
定義
Deals with the movement of goods, services, and related information from point of origin to point of consumption
包含
訂單處理(order processing)
存貨管理(inventory management)
物料管理(material handling)
倉儲管理(warehousing)
運輸管理(transportation)
目的
meeting customer service standards
reducing total distribution cost
reducing cycle time
行銷管理/邱
行銷溝通（MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS）
定義
又稱 promotion mix
Marketer-initiated techniques directed to target audiences in an attempt to influence attitudes and behaviors
內容
廣告（Advertising）
公共關係（Public Relations）
促銷（Sales Promotion）
人員銷售（Personal Selling）
直效行銷（Direct Selling）
16-3
行銷管理/邱
行銷溝通的角色（ROLE OF MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS）
To inform
communicate product availability, product characteristics and benefits, and timing
To persuade
to encourage preference, attitude change, purchase
To remind
maintain awareness, inhibit competition, encourage repeat purchase
16-6
行銷管理/邱
廣告（Advertising）
Non-personal
Paid for by an identified sponsor
Disseminated through mass channels of communication
16-7
行銷管理/邱
公共關係（Public Relations）
Identifies, establishes, and maintains mutually beneficial relationships with various publics
公共報導（Publicity）
Non-paid communication
May be positive or negative
Can be handled by outside agency
Not without costs
行銷管理/邱
促銷（Sales Promotion）
定義
提供 extra value or incentives來增進買者的產品 interest, trial, or purchase
Examples
coupons, samples, premiums, point-of-purchase displays, sweepstakes, contests, rebates, trade show exhibits
種類
Consumer sales promotion
Trade sales promotion
16-10
行銷管理/邱
人員銷售（Personal Selling）
Interpersonal communications between seller and buyer
Allows immediate feedback
Enables a message to be tailored to individual needs
Important when product is complex
行銷管理/邱
直效行銷（Direct Selling）
Process of communicating directly with target customers
Encouraged response by telephone, mail, electronic means, or personal visit
Computer shopping services, infomercials, cable shopping services
16-13
行銷管理/邱
整合行銷溝通（INTEGRATED MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS [IMC] ）
定義
Strategic integration of multiple communication methods
目標
to form a comprehensive, consistent message
Seeks to achieve synergy – a single voice
Builds marketing system relationships
16-14
行銷管理/邱
行銷溝通程序（MARKETING COMMUNICATIONS PROCESS）
訊息來源（Source）
message sender
編碼（Encoding）
source chooses words, pictures, other symbols to transmit the indented message
訊息（Message）
represents what the company is trying to convey
通路（Channel）
means by which message is conveyed
解碼（Decoding）
process by which the receiver deciphers the meaning
訊息接受者（Receiver）
the recipient of message
16-16
行銷管理/邱
行銷溝通規劃（MARKETING COMMUNICATION PLANNING）（I）
行銷計畫回顧（Marketing Plan Review）
狀況分析（Situation Analysis）
Competitive environment
Economic environment
Social environment
Marketing mix considerations
溝通程序分析（Communications Process Analysis）
預算訂定（Budget Development）
Budgeting Methods
Percentage of Sales
Competitive Parity
All You Can Afford
Objective-Task
16-25
行銷管理/邱
行銷溝通規劃（MARKETING COMMUNICATION PLANNING）（II）
方案發展（Program Development）
Explicit communication
conveys a distinct, clearly stated message
Implicit communication
what the message connotes
Push strategy
promoting the product to a reseller
Pull strategy
promoting the product to consumer
Combination strategy
aiming marketing communications at both resellers and ultimate consumers.
整合與執行（Integration and Implementation）
監視、評估、與控制（Monitoring, Evaluation, Controlling）
16-25
行銷管理/邱
廣告公司的概況
功能
發展廣告
採購媒體時段
公司支付廣告公司的方法
Percentage of Gross Billing
Labor-Based System
Incentive Programs
17-10
行銷管理/邱
廣告的種類
產品廣告（Product Advertising）
公司形象廣告（Corporate Image Advertising）
公司議題倡導廣告（Corporate Advocacy Advertising）
公共服務廣告（Public Service Advertising）
直接回應性廣告（Direct-Response Advertising）
企業對企業廣告（Business-to-Business Advertising）
通路合作性廣告（Cooperative Advertising）
17-12
行銷管理/邱
消費者廣告處理的層級效果
Message Exposure
Attention
Comprehension
Acceptance
Retention
17-17
行銷管理/邱
DEVELOPING AN ADVERTISING CAMPAIGN
Select
target
market
Determine
advertising
objectives
Determine
advertising
budget
Evaluate
advertising
effectiveness
Design
creative
strategy
Select &
schedule
media
17-20
行銷管理/邱
廣告活動的發展程序
選擇目標市場
決定廣告目的
決定廣告預算
設計廣告創意
選擇與排定媒體時間
評估廣告效果
17-21
行銷管理/邱
廣告創意策略的方式
客觀宣言（Objective claims）
主觀宣言（Subjective claims）
擴大式廣告（Expansion advertising）
比較性廣告（Comparative advertising）
情感式訴求廣告（Emotional appeals）
恐怖訴求式廣告（Fear appeals）
名人背書廣告（Celebrity endorsement）
幽默式廣告（Humor appeals）
潛意識下廣告（Subliminal advertising）
專欄贊助廣告（Advertorial）
資訊式廣告（Informercial）
產品放置式廣告（Product placement advertising）
17-35
行銷管理/邱
媒體選擇因素
Cost
Size and Characteristics of Audience
Characteristics of Message Itself
Reach
CPM(Cost Per Thousand)
Frequency
行銷管理/邱
廣告效能評估
知曉與說服的爭議
方法
前測
焦點團體（Focus group）
實驗方法（Laboratory techniques）
回憶測試（Recall tests）
後測
回憶測試（Recall tests）
焦點團體（Focus group）
追蹤測試 （Tracking Studies)
行銷管理/邱
消費者促銷的目的
刺激試用
增加消費者庫存與消費
鼓勵重複購買
減輕競爭者促銷的影響
增加互補品的銷售
增進衝動性購買
增加價格彈性
18-1
行銷管理/邱
消費者促銷的方法
價格促銷
Cents off deals
Price pack deals
折價券
現金回饋
交叉促銷
比賽（Contests）
抽獎（Sweepstakes）
樣品
廣告式禮品
行銷管理/邱
通路促銷的目標
增取或維持配銷通路
影響通路商促銷產品的意願
影響通路商願意提供價格折扣
增加通路商庫存
防禦競爭者
減少長期性降價
18-5
行銷管理/邱
通路促銷的方法
Trade Allowances(通路津貼)
Dealer loaders
Trade Contests
Point of Purchase Displays
Trade Shows
Training Programs
Push Money
行銷管理/邱
銷售人員種類(Types of Sales Personnel)
Business to Business
Sales support
Missionaries
Detailers
New Business
Existing business
Direct to consumer
行銷管理/邱
關係導向的銷售程序
表現出可建立信任的特質
發展銷售策略
開始推動顧客關係
Prospecting
Pre-call planning
Approach the customer
發展顧客關係
Sales presentation delivery
Gaining customer commitment
增進顧客關係
行銷管理/邱
銷售管理(I)
發展銷售策略
Developing a relationship strategy
Customer-oriented
Honest
Dependable
Competent
Likable
Developing a sales channel strategy
Sales territory
Each customer
Each sales call
設計銷售組織
Generists vs. Specialists?
How much the sales effort and forces?
Sales territories?
Salesforces turnover?
行銷管理/邱
銷售管理(II)
發展銷售人員
Recruiting and selecting
Training
領導銷售人力
Motivation
Supervision and leadership
評估銷售績效
Setting standards
Quotas
Evaluating performance
Behavioral-based perspectives
Outcome-based perspectives
Analyzing effectiveness
行銷管理/邱
Transactional vs Relationship Selling
Goal
Sell products vs add value
Time frame
Short vs long
Offering
Standardized vs Customized
Number of customers
Many vs. Few
Cost to serve
Low vs High
Commitment
Low vs High
行銷管理/邱
直效行銷（Direct Marketing）的工具
Direct Mail
Broadcast Media
Informercials
Direct-Response Television advertising
Direct-response radio advertising
Print Media
Telemarketing
Electronic Media
Interactive computer services
Interactive computer kiosks
Fax machine
行銷管理/邱
