Chap2
保证食品安全的食品加工
Food Properties
Food Spoilage and
Food Preservation
涉及内容:食品特征、食品腐败和食品保藏
第一节 前言
1、Introduction (1)
Most food is produced
绝大多数的食品是要经过加工处理的
Once or twice per year at harvests
每年在收获季节,可有一到两次的采收
Far away from big cities
原料远离城市
2、Introduction (2)
Food is needed
“民以食为天”
Every day
因为我们每天必须摄取一定量的食品
In urban areas
尤其是在大城市,对食品的质量要求会更高
3、Introduction (3)
That is why there is a need for
这就是 为什么对以下两点有需要的原因
Food preservation food industry
食品的保藏 食品工业生产
Food transportation food retail
食品的运输 食品的零售
4、Introduction (4)
Historically, objectives of food
technologies have been :
自古以来,食品加工技术的目的在于:
preservation of food
食品获得良好的保藏性
rendering food more palatable and digestible
食品更加美味可口和容易消化吸收
5、Introduction (5)
In modern times, food technologies are applied with the additional objectives :
在当代,食品加工技术还运用于以下几方面:
developing new food products
开发新食品
giving food desired functional properties
赋予食品更多的功效
improving nutritional and organoleptic quality
提高食品的营养价值和口感
ensuring safety
保证食品的安全性
6、Introduction (6)
Microorganisms in food are
食品中的微生物
helpful: for fermentation
有益之处:发酵
competitive: cause spoilage
竞争性:导致食品腐败
hazardous: cause foodborne disease
危害性:导致食源性疾病
Objective
2、学习目标
To understand : 需要了解:
how different food technologies can be used to prevent spoilage and/or control hazards in foods
防止食品腐败和(或)控制潜在危害的食品加工技术不同
the factors (parameters) which influence the process and thus the safety of the final products
影响加工过程以及终产品安全的各种因素(参数)
how to monitor these factors 如何监控这些因素
第二节 保证食品安全的食品加工技术
Classes of food technologies
食品加工技术的类型
Food technologies can be classified into those that :
食品加工技术可归纳成以下三类:
render food safe 提高食品的安全性;
control contaminants . prevent growth of microorganisms or production of toxin(s)
控制污染,即防止微生物生长或产生毒素
prevent (re-) contamination 预防(二次)污染
一、提高食品安全性的技术
(一)、 Heat treatments加热处理
(二)、冷冻
(三)、辐照
(四)、化学消毒
(五)、高压技术
二、控制污染的技术
(一)温度(冷持、热持)
(二)pH(酸化、发酵)
(三)水分活度(盐腌、糖渍、干燥、冷冻)
(四)防腐剂(杀菌素、亚硝酸盐)
三、防止再次(二次)污染的技术
(一)包装技术
(二)设备消毒
(三)食品加工设备的卫生设计
一、影响食品安全的食品因素
1、温度
2、水分活度
3、pH
4、氧气
Temperature 温度
Hot
Cold
C (Minimum) 最低温度
B (Optimum)最适温度
A (Maximum) 最高温度
How temperature affects growth
rate of a bacterial population
1、温度对细菌群落生长速率的影响
Growth of S. typhimurium at different temperatures
不同温度下鼠伤寒沙门氏菌的生长
Time (Days) 天数
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0
1
2
3
4
5
25°
20°
15°
10°
Temperature range
for growth of pathogens
致病菌生长的温度范围
Temperature°C
Min. Opt. Max.
Salmonella 沙门氏菌 5 35 - 37 47
Campylobacter 弯曲杆菌 30 42 47
E. coli 大肠杆菌 10 37 48
S. aureus 金黄色葡萄球菌 37 - 40 48
C. botulinum (proteolytic) 10 50
肉毒梭状芽孢杆菌(蛋白质水解型)
C. botulinum (non - proteolytic) 25 – 37
肉毒梭状芽孢杆菌(非蛋白质水解型)
B. Cereus 蜡状芽孢杆菌 4 30 - 35 48 - 50
Temperature °C
Min. Opt. Max.
Penicillium verrucosum 疣孢青霉 0 20 31
Aspergillus ochraceus 赫曲霉 8 28 37
Aspergillus flavus 黄曲霉 10 32 42
Fusarium moniliforme 串珠镰孢霉 3 25 37
Temperature range for grow of toxigenic moulds
产毒素霉菌生长的温度范围
Mycotoxins in food
食品中的霉菌毒素
Mould 霉菌
Product 产品
Toxin(s) 毒素
Aspergillus flavus cereals, nuts aflatoxin
黄曲霉 谷类,坚果 黄曲霉毒素
Aspergillus parasiticus peanuts
寄生曲霉 花生
Fusarium graminearium cereals deoxynivalenon (DON)
镰刀菌 谷类 脱氧瓜蒌镰菌醇
Fusarium moniliforme cereals fumonism
串珠镰刀菌 谷类 串珠镰刀菌毒素
Aspergillus ochraceus cereals, ochratoxin
赫曲霉 谷类 赭曲霉素
Penicillium verrucosum coffee
疣孢青霉 咖啡
Fusarium graminearum cereals zearalenone
禾谷镰刀菌 谷类 玉米烯酮
0°
10°
°
60°
72°
100°
BoilingPoint
沸点
PasteurisingTemperature
巴氏灭菌温度
Freezer 冷冻
Fridge 冷藏箱
BodyTemperature
体温
Temperature zones
温度范围
SAFETY
安全温度
SAFETY
安全温度
DANGER
危险温度
Psychro trophic pathogens
嗜冷致病菌
L . monocytogenes
单核细胞增生李斯特菌
Y . enterocolitica
小肠结肠炎耶尔森氏菌
C . botulinum type
肉毒梭状芽孢杆菌
Water activity
2、水分活度
Water is required for the growth and metabolism of microorganisms
水是微生物生长和新陈代谢必需的物质
All the water in foods is not available for microorganisms
并非食品中的水分都能被微生物利用
The degree of availability of water is measured by water activity (a w )
用水分活度a w 衡量有效水分的含量
Chemical and enzymatic reactions are also affected by availability of water
化学反应和酶反应也受有效水分的影响
Water activity (definition)
水分活度a w的定义
a w is the ratio of water vapour pressure of food (p) to that of pure water (po) at the same temperature.
a w指相同温度下,食品的水蒸汽压P和纯水的蒸汽压P0之比。
a w = p/ po
0 < a w < 1
Water activity (3) 水分活度a w
Aw
Reaction rate
反应速率
Lipid oxydation 油脂氧化
Non-enzymatic
Browning 非酶褐变
Enzymatic activity
酶的活力
Growth of:
Moulds 霉菌
Yeasts 酵母
Bacteria 细菌
Minimum levels of aW permitting growth
( at near optimum temperatures )
微生物生长必需的最低水分活度(在接近最适温度下)
Moulds Aspergillus chevalieri 曲霉 霉菌 Aspergillus ochraceus 曲霉 Aspergillus flavus 黄曲霉 Penicillium verrucosum 青霉 Fusarium moniliforme 串珠镰孢霉
Yeasts Saccharomyces rouxii 鲁氏酵母 酵母 Saccharomyces cerevisiae 啤酒酵母
Bacteria Bacillus cereus 蜡状芽孢杆菌 细菌 Clostridium botulinum (proteolytic)
肉毒梭状芽孢杆菌(蛋白水解型) Clostridium botulinum (non-proteolytic)
肉毒梭状芽孢杆菌(非蛋白水解型)
Escherichia coli 埃希氏大肠杆菌 Salmonella 沙门氏菌 Staphylococcus aureus 葡萄球状杆菌
Range of aW in foods
and their microbial flora
食品中aW的范围及其微生物菌群
aw range
Foods
Microbial flora
>
Fresh meats 鲜肉
Fresh fish 鲜鱼
Fresh fruits 鲜果
Fresh vegetables新鲜的蔬菜
Canned vegetables in brine
罐装盐水蔬菜
Canned fruit in light syrup
(< % salt, 26% sugar)
低盐罐装水果(盐<%,糖<26%)
(C. perfringens,
产气荚膜梭菌 Salmonella)
沙门氏菌
(Pseudomonas)
假单孢菌
-
Fermented sausages 发酵香肠
Processed cheese
加工干酪
Bread 面包
Evaporated milk 炼乳
Tomato paste 番茄酱
(10% salt, 50% sugar)
(10%盐。50%糖)
(B. cereus, 蜡状杆菌
C. botulinum, 肉毒梭菌
Salmonella 沙门氏菌)
lactobacilli, bacilli and
Micrococci 乳酸菌,芽孢杆菌,微球菌
Range of aW in foodsand and their microbial flora
aw range’
aw范围
Foods
食品
Microbial flora
微生物菌群
S. aureus葡萄球菌
Mycotoxinproducing moulds
能产生霉菌毒素的霉菌
Spoilage yeasts and moulds
腐败性酵母和霉菌
Dry fermented
sausages干燥发酵香肠
Raw ham 生火腿
(17% salt, saturated
sucrose)
(盐17%,饱和蔗糖)
-
Xerophilic fungi喜旱真菌
Halophiles 嗜盐生物
Osmophilic yeasts
耐高渗透酵母
Dried fruit 干果
Flour 面粉
Cereals 谷类
Salted fish 咸鱼
Nuts 坚果
<
No growth but may
remain viable
不生长但能残存于其中
Confectionery糖果
Honey 蜂蜜
Noodles 面条
Dried egg, milk
干燥鸡蛋,牛奶
Water activity (4)
水分活度
aw can be reduced by :
下述三种方法能减小aw:
Removing water (drying) 除去水分(烘干)
Decreasing availability of water by crystalization (freezing) 通过结晶(冷冻)减少有效水分
Decreasing availability by binding water with water binding agents . salt, sugar
利用盐、糖这些亲水试剂与水分子的结合减少有效水分
Concentration of NaCl and glucose
at various aw values (at 25°C)
25°C时不同浓度食盐和葡萄糖溶液的aw
aw
% w / w
Glucose 葡萄糖
% w / w
NaCl
pH values limiting the growth of pathogens
3、pH抑制致病菌的生长
pH
Min Max.
Escherichia coli 大肠杆菌
Salmonella typhi 沙门氏菌 4 - 8 -
Bacillus cereus 蜡状芽孢杆状菌
Clostridium botulinum
肉毒梭状杆菌
Staphylococcus aureus 4
金黄色葡萄状球菌
Saccharomyces cerevisiae啤酒酵母
Aspergillus flavus 曲霉菌
Fusarium moniliforme 镰刀菌
Penicillium verrucosum 青霉菌
pH and other factors pH和其它因素
Microorganisms can grow in lab media at a wider range of pH than would occur in Foods
与在食品中相比,微生物在实验室培养基中能在更宽的pH范围内生长
Here, other factors come into effect . microbial competition:
(这里,还存在其它因素的影响,如:微生物的竞争)
oxygen tension 氧气的压力
storage temperature 贮藏温度
reduced aw 降低aw
heat damage to cells during processing
加工过程中的热杀菌
pH
Acidification 酸化
addition of vinegar 添加醋
Fermentation 发酵
organic acid 有机酸
competitive exclusion 排除竞争性
antimicrobial agents 抗菌剂
pH of different foods 不同食品的pH
Approximate pH ranges of some common food commodities 常见食品的pH范围
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
pH
Fermented shark发酵鲨鱼
Egg white蛋白
Fish 鱼类
Meat 肉类
Citrus fruits柑桔
Milk 牛奶
Soft drinks软饮料
Flour面粉
Vegetables
蔬菜
Beer 啤酒
Food technologies
that may kill certain microbes
可以杀死某些微生物的食品加工技术
Heat treatments 加热处理
Irradiation 辐射
Disinfection 消毒
Freezing (parasites only)
冷冻(仅对寄生虫有效)
High pressure technology 高压技术
二、加热处理
加热方法的分类
Method of heating 加热方法
Cooking 烹调
baking / roasting 烘烤
Boiling 煮沸
Frying 油炸
Grilling 烧烤
Microwave
微波加热
pasteurization
巴氏杀菌
Sterilization
杀菌
Heating medium加热介质
Water 水
Air 空气
Water 水
oil 油
Air 空气
electromagnetic radiation
电磁辐射
heat exchanger / water
热交换器(水作为介质)
steam under pressure
高压蒸汽
D value D值
t
t = D. log No/N
No: Initial number of microorganisms
微生物的原始菌数
N: Number of microorganism at time t
经t时间热处理后微生物的残存菌数
Heat resistance is measured by the decimal reduction time D
耐热性是用指数递减时间(D值)来测定的
-1
-2
-3
D
log N/No
0
T (℃)
Heat resistance (1) 耐热性
Vegetative organism 活微生物
Escherichia coli 大肠杆菌
Salmonella spp 沙门氏菌属
Salmonella typhimurium 鼠伤寒沙门氏菌
Salmonella senftenberg 桑夫顿堡沙门氏菌
Staphylococcus aureus 葡萄球菌
Listeria monocytogenes 李斯特单胞菌
Campylobacter jejuni 弯曲杆菌
4
D. values (min)
65℃
55℃
60℃
Heat resistance (2)
C. botulinum type A and B
肉毒梭状芽孢菌 A 型和B型
C. botulinum type E
肉毒梭状芽孢菌 E型
C. perfringens
产气夹膜梭状芽孢菌
C. sporogenes
生孢芽孢梭菌
Bacillus cereus
蜡状芽孢杆菌
50
-20
5
Bacterial endospores
细菌芽孢
< 1 sec
100℃
110℃
121℃
D values (min)
Heat resistance (3)
Heat resistance ( D-value ) is influenced by many factors, .
耐热性(D值)受许多因素的影响,例如:
type or strain of microorganism 微生物的类型或种类
physico - chemical parameters of the medium . water activity, pH, composition
培养基的物理-化学参数,比如:水分活度、酸碱度以及组成成分等
age of the cells or state of growth
细胞的年龄或其生长的状态
Heat resistance (4)
Medium 培养基
Heart infusion broth
(pH = ; aw = )
Heart infusion broth+ NaCl
(pH = ; aw = )
Heart infusion broth+ Sucrose
(pH = ; aw = )
D60 - value
Salmonella senftenberg
沙门氏菌
Heat treatment
热处理
Holding temp.
杀菌温度
Minimal lethal temp.
最低热致死温度
Holding time
恒温时间
Start of heating effect
热处理开始时间
End of
heating effect
热处理结束时间
T
t
Effects on proteins and vitamins
对蛋白质和维生素的影响
Protein degradation 蛋白质降解
Non - enzymatic browning 非酶促褐变
Lipase 脂肪
Thiamin 硫胺(维生素B1)
Vitamin C 维生素C
D121 (min)
5
- 40
-
38 - 380
245
Pasteurization schemes
1、巴氏杀菌法
Low temperature: 63℃ for 30 min
低温巴氏杀菌:63℃ ,保持30分钟
High temperature:72℃ for 15 sec
高温巴氏杀菌:72℃ ,保持15秒
Ultra-high temperature:135℃ for 1 sec
超高温巴氏杀菌:135℃ ,保持1 秒
Temperature gradient in hamburger
汉堡包中温度梯度变化图
Microwave treatmen
2、微波处理
Heat is generated by friction of water molecules under the influence of electromagnetic waves (500 MHz to 10 GHz)
在电磁波的作用下,水分子相互摩擦产生热量
Rapid but non - uniform heating (cold and hot spots)
加热速度快,但不均匀(存在冷点和热点)
Freezing
三、冷冻处理
作用:
Effective against parasites :对寄生虫的影响
Critical limit : - 18℃ for minimum 24 to 48 h
临界限:- 18 ℃ ,至少要保持24 ~ 48 h,才能杀死寄生虫
No or minimal effect on:
下列情况下,冷冻处理的影响很小或是根本没有
survival of Bacteria and viruses
残存的细菌和病毒
enzymatic activity (polyphenol oxidase, lipase)
酶的活性(比如:多酚氧化酶和脂肪酶)
irradiation
四、辐射
Food irradiation (1)
1、食品辐射保藏
Gamma rays γ射线
produced during decay of radioactive isotopes Cobalt 60, Cesium 137 Good penetration power
钴60和铯137放射性同位数衰变时所产生的能量称为γ射线,该射线是波长非常短的电磁波束,能量较高,穿透物质的能力很强。
High energy electron beams 高能量电子束
produced by accelerators ,low penetration
由加速器产生,穿透物质的能力较低
X rays X射线
highest penetration power 穿透物质的能力较高
Low - dose irradiation
低剂量辐射处理
Low – dose 低剂量
(up to 1 kGy)
Inhibition of sprouting
抑制发芽
Insect disinfestation and
parasite disinfection
杀死昆虫和寄生虫
Delay of physiological
processes (. ripening)
延迟生理过程
(比如:过熟)
Products irradiated
被辐射的产品
Potatoes, onions, garlic, etc.
西红柿、洋葱、大蒜等
Cereals and pulses, fresh
and dried fruits, dried fish
and meat, fresh pork
谷物、鲜果、干果以及
干鱼、肉和新鲜猪肉
Fresh fruits and vegetables
新鲜水果和蔬菜
Dose (kGy)
剂量 -
-
-
Medium - dose irradiation
中等剂量辐射处理
Medium-dose 1-10 kGy
中等剂量
Dose (kGy)
剂量
Products irradiated
辐射的产品
Extension of shelf-life
延长货价寿命
-
Fresh fish, strawberries,
鲜鱼和草莓等
etc.
Elimination of spoilage
and pathogenic消除腐败微生物和致病菌
microorganisms
-
Fresh and frozen
seafood, raw or frozen
poultry and meat, etc.
新鲜的和冷冻的海产品以
及冷冻的家禽和肉等
Improving technological
properties of food
提高食品的品质
-
Grapes (increasing juice
yield), dehydrated
vegetables (reduced
cooking time), etc.
葡萄(提高出汁率)和脱水
蔬菜(减少烹调时间)等
High - dose irradiation
高剂量辐射处理
High-dose (10-50 kGy)
高剂量辐射
Dose (kGy)
剂量
Products irradiated
被辐射的产品
Sometimes industrial
sterilization
(in combination with
mild heat treatment)
有时应用于工业化杀菌
(与轻微加热处理方法结合)
30 - 50
Meat, poultry,
seafood, prepared
foods, sterilised
hospital diets
肉、家禽、海产食品和制备食品、经过杀菌的医院食品
Decontamination of
certain food additives and ingredients
消除某些食品添加剂和成分 的污染
10 - 50
Spices, enzyme
preparations
调味品和酶的制备
Necessary dose
最低剂量
Parasites 寄生虫
kGy
Bacteria 细菌
1-7 kGy
Viruses 病毒
> 30 kGy
Parasites 寄生虫
G – Bacteria
革兰氏阴性细菌
G + Bacteria, moulds
革兰氏阳性细菌,霉菌
Spores, yeasts孢子和酵母
Viruses 病毒
Sensitivity of microorganisms
微生物的敏感性
+
Food irradiation at any dose has been assessed by IAEA, FAO and WHO as safe 国际原子能组织、国际粮农组织以及世界卫生组织对各种剂量处理的辐射食品进行了评估,认为它具有安全性
Macronutrients and essential minerals are not affected by food irradiation食品辐射处理不影响其中存在的常量营养元素和必需矿物质
Certain vitamins . thiamine and tocopherols are sensitive, but the loss is small (10 - 20 % or less) and comparable to thermal processing or drying 某些维生素,如维生素B1和维生素E,对辐射敏感。但是,与加热和干燥法相比,其损失量很小( 10~20 % 或者更少)
Food irradiation (2) 食品辐射处理
一、
辐照在保障食品安全中的应用
(一)在脱水蔬菜中的应用
杨宗渠,2003
杨宗渠,2003
D10值越大越不容易杀死
脱水蔬菜辐照杀菌处理剂量一般为6kGy左右
(二)在肉类保藏中的应用
特点:
能杀死肉制品中的致病菌、寄生虫等食源性病原物
无化学物残留,不损及食品感官指标
对肉制品的营养成分及风味影响小
畜禽肉制品、水产类肉制品中
食品辐照保鲜技术,是利用电离辐射产生的射线穿过食品时以强大的能量将食物表面和内部的微生物杀死。
延长了食品,特别是肉制品的货架期。
辐照基本不用升温就能达到灭菌的效果
一种冷加工技术
优点:
1、最大限度地保持了营养成分
蟹肉辐照后,对氨基酸影响并不显著(使部分蛋白酶失活,降低了氨基酸的分解。)
2、保持肉类食品原有的感官指标
辐照下真空包装和充气包装的无骨猪肉的风味、质构、香气时,发现在辐照剂量 ≤ 时,冷冻、冷藏猪肉的香气、质构、风味变化影响最小。
消费者对剂量≤辐射猪肉的接受程度与对照组在汁液、新鲜度、韧度上无任何区别。
8kGy的辐照剂量处理后,真空包装的卤鸭在5 个月的保质期中各项感官指标正常。
3、辐照杀菌谱广
沙门氏菌
大肠杆菌
金黄色葡萄球菌
旋毛虫
应用领域:
冷却肉类食品
熟肉制品
应用例子:
微波烤虾:
2kGy辐照处理的微波烤虾在短期(1-5d)贮藏
能保证色泽、品质和滋味;杀菌不彻底
杨性民,2003
(三)食品添加剂
杨宗渠,2003
(四)保健食品
二、
辐射食品的安全性评价
主要内容
(1)放射安全性,无可检测放射性和无有害辐射产品
(2)微生物安全性,无致病菌及其分泌的毒素
(3)营养充足,避免营养价值的过度损失
(4)毒理安全性
(一)放射安全性
Co-60和Cs-137发出的射线
小于或等于10Mev的能量加速的电子流
小于或等于5Mev的能量的X-射线
不会产生放射性
自由基问题:
电离辐射能诱发食品中的化学反应,例如高反应活性自由基的形成。
在水分存在的条件下,自由基的寿命很短。
辐射食品在到消费者手中仍含有或存在自由基是不可能的。
香料和调味料中,自由基比较稳定,不会很快消失。
烹调和罐装 也会产生自由基
辐解产物
来源:
食品组分(脂肪,蛋白质,碳水化合物)
影响因素:
辐射食品的水和状态
使用的辐照剂量
辐射时食品的温度
环境氧气
1、碳水化合物辐解产物
1、碳水化合物的辐射分解间接来源于:羟基自由基的间接反应,最初是和C-H键反应
太少,不值得去关注
脂肪和蛋白质的存在,对碳水化合物的破坏有一定的保护作用
2、蛋白质辐解产物
来源:羟基自由基与氨基酸和蛋白质之间的反应,包括:
脱氨
脱羧
巯基的氧化
二硫键的减少
氨基酸残基的改性
多肽链的裂解和聚合
*形成的少量挥发性物质:苯,甲苯,甲基硫化物,二甲基硫化物,氢硫化物,乙醛,甲基硫醇和氨水
3、脂肪辐解产物
影响因素:
脂肪含量
脂肪酸的性质
吸收的辐射能
温度、氧气的存在与否
*主要产物(不论氧气有或无):烃,乙醇,醛和酯,自由脂肪酸,二聚体,氢气,二氧化碳,一氧化碳。
*当氧气存在时:酮及大量的二聚体
4、维生素辐解产物
由各自的初级和次级自由基反应决定
维生素如A(视黄醇),C(抗坏血酸),E(生育酚),B12(钴铵素),B1(硫胺),B5(烟酸)与许多有机官能团(包括过氧基团)反应活跃
B6,B2,D3。B族复合物(泛酸)和H(生物素),对许多自由基而言,并不活泼,相对比较稳定。
牛肉,鸡肉,猪肉的辐解产物从本质上讲是相同的,辐射的肉中的脂肪含量成为辐解产物数量的决定性因素
在先后经γ-射线或电子辐射(大约-30℃,56kGy),预煮,真空包装的牛肉中检测到65种挥发性和不挥发性物质,浓度范围从1到700ug/kg,总产量为9mg/kg。
BFIFC建议,占每天膳食的%的食品组分(如调味料),在辐射剂量低于1kGy处理的食品和辐射剂量高达50kGy处理的食品一样,对于人类消费是安全的而无需进行毒理实验
(二) 生物安全性
2到7kGy的中等剂量的辐射,足以杀死致病菌。
达50kGy的高辐射剂量可根除有高抗性Clostridium botulinum的孢子
当食品受到的辐射剂量不足以杀菌,一些微生物将存活下来 ,其后果:
辐射对食品中微生物菌丛的选择性提高。
2. 存活微生物的突变几率提高。
3. 重复使用亚致死的辐射剂量从而使对辐射的抗性提高
4. 辐射后,微生物的鉴定特征可能发生改变,从而导致种类或菌株不能正确的鉴别。
5. 产毒细菌或霉菌的毒素形成量提高。曾有报导,当Aspergillus flavus,Asperillus parasiticus的孢子,或这些孢子形成的菌落经辐射后,黄曲霉毒素的产量会提高。
世界卫生组织认为:
没有理由认为食品辐射与应用于食品加工的常规技艺有所不同,不需要控制
(三)充足的营养
大量营养素(蛋白质,碳水化合物,脂肪)和微量营养素(维生素)
----影响食品的营养价值
变化的本质和程度依赖于:
食品的类型及其组成
应用的辐射剂量
修饰因素,如温度
处理中氧气的存在与否
以后的处理和储藏
对大量营养素的影响
辐射;
10kGy辐射剂量对小麦,玉米,燕麦粉中的氨基酸没有明显变化。
25kGy时,小麦粉,玉米粉,燕麦粉中蛋氨酸的损失量分别为39%,26%,31%。
玉米粉中半胱氨酸的损失量为33%,但是另外两种谷物中没有损失。
剂量γ-射线
小麦和玉米中赖氨酸,甲硫氨酸,半胱氨酸,苯丙氨酸,酪氨酸,异亮氨酸的损失量可达10%到20%。
豆类中必需氨基酸的下降总体上比谷物要低
预煮的牛肉在温度范围为-40℃到-9℃,受到辐射剂量从47kGy到71kGy的γ-射线或电子流辐射,并立即于室温下储藏15个月,甲硫氨酸,半胱氨酸,及色氨酸(这三种氨基酸被认为对电离辐射最敏感)没有明显的破坏。
蛋白质的利用系数也没有受到影响。
微波烤虾:
采用辐照处理,杀菌效果随剂量增加而显著
辐照对蛋白质、氨基酸总量略有影响
减少幅度为5%左右
剂量为6kGy,8kGy辐照杀菌能有效降低微波烤虾腐败微生物含量
常温保存6个月后,甘氨酸明显降低,造成虾肉鲜味不足
对维生素的影响
敏感性:
水溶性维生素,B1对辐射最敏感,其次是C,B6,B2,叶酸,烟酸,B12。
脂溶性维生素,E最易受电离辐射影响,其次是胡萝卜素,维生素A,D,K。
维生素对辐射的敏感度的影响因素:
食品组分
辐射条件(例如,剂量,温度,氧气的存在与否)
杨宗渠,2003
降低损失的方法:
排空气法
低温
从营养学的观点看,在评估辐射食品的卫生性时,应考虑到以下几点:
(1)营养的损失程度和食品对整个膳食营养摄入量的贡献
(2)食品对一个国家特定地区居民及任何特殊人群或年龄群的膳食的重要性
(3)维生素的积累损失,例如,在整个加工及烹调过程中
(四)毒理性
FAO/IAEA/WHO专家联合会议认为;
总平均辐射剂量达10kGy处理过的辐射食品不会产生任何毒理性危害
动物实验结论
人体实验:
1、人体食用辐射剂量为30kGy处理的食品的10个志愿者小组中,临床和实验室检测并没有发现任何明显的异常
Kraybill报导
2、一组年轻男士在食用含有54种不同的辐射食品(鱼,肉,水果,蔬菜,谷物食品,杂食),15天。
食品的辐射剂量范围为到40kGy。
在研究前和研究期间及研究结束后一年进行的身体检查和实验室临床检测,没有任何与食用辐射食品有关的负面影响。
3、在中国,439个志愿者所参与的8个实验中,食用为期7-15个星期的占膳食总量的60-66%的辐射食品(,大米,土豆,花生,蘑菇,中国腊肠,肉,蔬菜,及普通谷类)。
在实验和对照组中,在临床的毒理检测和外围的血液淋巴细胞中没发现任何明显的差别 。
4、辐射剂量为25kGy处理的食品,多年来一直用作宇航员或因免疫系统有缺陷而服用细胞毒素药物或器官移植的病人的特殊膳食。
没有报导会产生营养方面或毒理方面的负面影响
毒性结论:
在良好操作规范条件下,在商业允许的剂量下处理的辐射食品对人类健康无任何危害
三、
辐射食品的检测
状况:
目前,没有一种切实可靠的单一程序来检测所有的辐射食品。
不同的食品建议用不同的方法。
检测方法:
1、电子自旋共振光谱
检测:辐射食品所包含的刚性材料如小石头,脱落的壳,和种子;(最好的方法)
2、热荧光技术
检测:草,香料及干制食品组分;
3、来源于脂肪的挥发性碳氢化合物及2-烷基环丁烷的鉴定;用于:含脂肪食品
4、o-酪氨酸方法
检测:含蛋白质食品(鸡肉,猪肉,鱼肉,虾);
5、通过黏度来对香料及香草检测
国际上辐照食品的发展特点
近年来,在FAO/IAEA/WHO 3个国际组织的倡导下,辐照食品逐步转向商业化,食品辐照技术正加快向食品工业转移
主要特点:
1、 从法律上清除了辐照食品国际贸易上的障碍。
2、 进出口食品检疫日益受到重视,特别是溴甲烷一类化学熏蒸剂因潜在致癌危险而禁用后,辐照检疫已成为优先技术。对于发展中国家来说,用辐照处理以提高食品的卫生质量并增强国际市场的竞争能力已是一种有效方法。
3、 采用辐照处理以提高食品的卫生质量和减少食源性疾病的发生已逐步成为人们的共识。
4、 食品的辐照技术正积极的向食品工业转移。
5、 国际上对辐照食品的批准正转向类别化。
管理组织:
联合国粮农组织(FAO)
国际原子能协会(IAEA)
世界卫生组织(WHO)
关于辐射食品召开的几次联合专家会议(KECFI)
目前辐射食品的认可批准情况
世界批准辐射食品供人食用的国家依次为:
前苏联、加拿大、美国
截止1995年,世界上已有了38个国家批准辐射食品。
我国政府自1984年以来,已批准了18种辐射食品
UV – radiation
2、紫外辐射
Produced by mercury lamps Limited penetration Useful for destroying microorganism in air, surfaces and in thin liquid films
Most effective against vegetative bacteria >yeast > bacterial spores > mould spores
水银灯产生的紫外线具有一定的穿透能力,可有效杀死空气中、物品表面和液体薄膜上的微生物。
紫外辐射对活体组织的作用效果如下:
细菌>酵母>细菌芽孢>霉菌孢子
Chemical disinfection
五、化学消毒
消毒剂
Example of application
需要消毒的对象
Water 水
Fruits and vegetables
水果和蔬菜
Surfaces and equipment
物质表面和设备
Example of disinfectant agent
消毒剂
chlorine 氯
hypochlorite 次氯酸盐
dioxide 二氧化氯
iodine 碘酒
chloramines 氯胺
ozone 臭氧
Efficacy of different disinfectants on pathogens is measured by the C . t value required to achieve 99 % reduction or inactivation of microorganisms
利用C . t值评价各种消毒剂杀灭致病菌的功效。
C . t值指杀死或钝化99%微生物。
Disinfection of water
1、水的消毒
Organism value ( ) for 99% inactivation
by chlorine at 5℃ and pH 6-7
微生物 在5℃ 和pH 6~7下,氯化水钝化99%微生物的 值( )
E . coli 大肠杆菌 -
Hepatitis A virus 肝炎A病菌
Poliovirus type 1 -
脊髓灰质炎病毒(类型1)
Rotavirus 轮状病毒 -
G . lamblia cyst 47 - 150
C . parvum 小棒杆菌 7200
Chlorination of water (1) 氯化水处理
Efficacity depends on purity :
消毒效率取决于纯度:
Median 半混浊度 : < 1 NTU
Maximum in single simple: 5 NTU
在纯样品中的最大浊度: 5 NTU
Chlorination of water (2)
(2)氯化水处理
Chlorination of water (3)
(3)水的消毒
The normal conditions for chlorination :
氯化处理的标准条件:
1)free resid. Chlorine ≥ mg / l
残留的游离氯气含量
2)contact time minimum 30 minutes
最低接触时间为30分钟
3)pH < 8
4)water turbidity < 1 NTU
水的浑浊度
Chlorination of water (4)
(4)水的消毒
To eliminate parasites and decrease
turbidity, chlorination is combined with :
为了消灭寄生虫,减少浑浊度,可将氯化处理
与下述方法结合使用:
coagulation and flocculation 凝固和絮凝
filtration 过滤
Depending on type of
fruits and vegetables
some decrease may be obtained
Not fully effective
根据水果和蔬菜的类型,能有一定的消毒作 用,但并不能达到圆满的效果
Disinfection of fruits and vegetables
(5)水果和蔬菜的消毒处理
High pressure technology
六、高压技术
Hydrostatic pressure 1000 Mpa 流体静压
Destruction of bacteria and fungi (90 % by 400 MPa for 5 min)
在400 Mpa 下处理5分钟能杀死90%的细菌和真菌
Resistance depends on pH and T
抵抗力取决pH 和T
Acts uniformly and instantaneously
作用力均匀、瞬时
Spores are resistant and tolerate pressure up to 1200 Mpa
芽孢能够抵抗和忍受的压力高达1200 Mpa
某些说明
L革兰氏阴性菌比革兰氏阳性菌对压力更敏感
棒状菌比球状菌对压力更为敏感
延滞期的细胞比指数期的细胞更具有抗压性
不同菌种和同一菌种的不同菌株对压力敏感性是不同的。
某些说明
食品体系中的细胞比缓冲溶液中的细胞具有更强的抗压性。
在低PH、高水分活度和有抗菌剂存在的条件下加压,能增加细菌的破坏。
l 随着压力、加压温度和时间的增加,细菌活性丧失量增加,其中加压时间影响最小。
l 加压后存活的细胞可能是亚致死损伤,和易受不利环境影响(低PH、抗菌剂、再加压、温和加热等)。
流体静力压加工技术在食品中潜在应用
1、抗菌特性
(1) 巴氏消毒法(在低压范围内)
杀死和损伤细菌细胞,病毒和噬菌体,酵母和霉菌,和寄生虫和原生动物,以及诱导细菌孢子发芽。
(2) 商业消毒(在高压条件下)
破坏细菌孢子。
流体静力压加工技术在食品中潜在应用
2、提高质量
(1)提高果汁、果酱和果冻的口感。
(2)改善水果产品和蛋黄的色泽。
(3)使肉嫩化。
(4)促进奶酪成熟。
(5)促进食品成分的反应。
流体静力压加工技术在食品中潜在应用
3、蛋白质改性
(1)促进富含蛋白质食品的凝胶、结构改变和卷曲。
(2)使酶、过敏原和毒素失活。
(3)使血液中的血红蛋白变色。
(4)增加蛋白质对酶活的敏感性。
流体静力压加工技术在食品中潜在应用
4、相变
(1) 迅速均匀地解冻食品。
(2)在-20℃下贮存解冻食品。
(3)由于淀粉凝胶使种子和谷粒软化
(4)由于脂质熔点升高,调和巧克力.
流体静力压加工技术在食品中潜在应用
5、气溶性和除杂
(1)CO2的饱和水溶液。
(2)除去食品中的空气。
流体静力压加工技术在食品中潜在应用
6、其他各方面的应用
(1)增加细胞成分,例如酶、溶质和水等的抽出物
(2)使食品成分成凝结。
(3)食品表面用可食用膜,和油脂胶囊包覆。
(4)在吮吸贝类食品时,打开贝壳。
特点:
不破坏食品中的小分子物质,例如:维生素、矿物质、风味物质和许多色素
Vacuum packaging
七、真空包装
Vacuum packaging 真空包装
Applied for fresh meat in combination with refrigeration
结合冷藏方法用于鲜肉保藏
Antimicrobial agents
八、抗菌剂
Curing salts nitrites
食品加工用盐,如:亚硝酸盐
Bacteriocins . Nisin
细菌素,如:尼生素
Gas: CO2 气体,如: CO2
Organic acids / salts benzoic, sorbic and propionic acid
有机酸或盐,如:安息香酸,山梨酸和丙酸
Modified atmosphere packaging(MAP) 九、气调包装
20% to 40% carbon dioxide:20%~40%
二氧化碳含量
80% to 60% nitrogen: 80%~60%
氮气的含量
combined with cold storage
与冷藏相结合
Smoking
十、烟熏
Combination of several factors :
几个因素的共同作用
heat treatment 热处理
drying 干燥
antimicrobial agent in the smoke
烟雾中的抗菌剂
十一、超临界流动相挤压(SCFX)
一项新颖的食品加工技术
增加食品中潜在的新鲜度
改善食品质构,色泽,风味
应用:即食谷类,意大利面食,糖果类产品等
科内尔大学发明
SCFX的特点
低于100 oc的温度:防止传统湿度下的瞬间膨胀;
相对较缓的去水条件:原料保持30-40%的相对湿度
既保护了热不稳定成分,又减少了挤压舱和螺杆的磨损。
注入的超临界co2主要是使淀粉产生一定量的泡沫体,以保证产品在干燥后能具有2-16倍的膨胀率。
SCFX工艺优于蒸汽挤压技术
低剪切力
低操作温度
产品的无孔表面
微孔尺寸
分布的高度均一性
十二、其他新型加工技术
脉冲电场 : X—射线
脉冲光 :紫外线
振荡磁场 :微波和无线电波频率
超声波 :欧姆加热和感应加热
高电压 :组合
Resource from Book:Novel process and control technologies in the food industries
Combinations of
food technologies
十三、食品工艺的组合
Combined technologies
组合工艺
Milk pasteurization and aseptic packaging
牛奶的巴氏杀毒和无菌包装
Hurdle technologies 栅栏技术
fermentation, smoking
发酵,烟熏
Refrigerated processed food of extended durability (REPFED)
冷藏加工食品的长期保存
THE END!
Food technologies have existed throughout history. Initially, their objective was to preserve food and/or make it more palatable and digestible, and the search for food preservation methods sometimes led to the development of new foods . wine. While ensuring food safety was not an explicit objective, any technology resulting in an unsafe product was bound to be changed or abandoned.
食品加工技术历史悠久。最初,加工的目的是为了便于保藏和使食品更加美味可口和容易消化,对食品保藏方法的研究有时导致了新食品的发展,如,酒。虽然保证食品安全是一个含糊的目标,但是,凡是不能确保食品安全的加工技术都必须改进或放弃。
As a science, however, Food Technology is relatively young. Some of the first scientific experiments in this area were done by Nicolas Appert who developed the canning process, to reduce the dependence of the French army on local provisions while on the move.
作为一门自然科学,食品加工技术还相当年青。Nicolas Appert 发展了罐头加工技术,从而减少了法国军队在行军过程中对地方供应的依赖,他的研究是该领域进行的第一批科学实验。
With increased understanding of the role of food in the transmission of diseases came the recognition that food technologies have an enormous potential for preventing disease and ensuring food safety.
人们越来越认识到食品在传播疾病方面的作用,同时也认识到食品加工技术在预防疾病和保证食品安全方面具有巨大的潜能。
One of the first technologies promoted for public health purposes was milk pasteurisation. It was recommended by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Milk Hygiene.
为促进公共健康而开发的食品加工技术之一是牛奶的巴氏灭菌。FAO/WHO专家委员会联合推荐该技术用于保证牛奶卫生。
Today, the objectives of food technology include improving nutritional, organoleptic and functional qualities as well as ensuring food safety.
今天,食品加工的目的包括提高食品的营养、口感、和功效,保证食品的安全性。
This lecture will explain how different food processing techniques can be used to prevent and/or control hazards in food and describe the factors (parameters) which influence the processes.
本讲将解释防止食品腐败和/或控制危害的食品加工技术有何不同,描述影响加工的各种因素(参数)。
There are different ways to classify food technologies. One is according to the type of treatment that foods receive, . physical or chemical.
In the context of HACCP and public health, it is more practical to address food technologies in terms of their role in ensuring food safety, as is shown in this slide.
食品加工技术的分类方法有多种。根据食品受到的处理方法分类就是其中之一。
The rest of this lecture will discuss food technologies which render foods safe. The next two modules will discuss technologies to control contaminants and prevent the growth of microorgansims, and those whose purpose is to prevent (re)contamination.
下面将讨论提高食品安全性的食品加工技术。然后再讨论控制污染和防止微生物生长的食品加工技术以及预防食品(二次)污染的加工技术。
Temperature control is one of the most important aspects of control of microbiological hazards and prevention of foodborne diseases.
Every organism has a minimum, optimum and maximum temperature for growth,
Below the optimum, the growth rate (generation time) decreases. The sub-optimum temperatures do not usually kill the organism. At high temperatures, damage to proteins and cell constituents occurs. This is why the curve descends rapidly at temperature above the optimum.
温度控制是控制微生物危害、预防食源性疾病最重要的措施之一。
每种微生物的生长都有其最低、最适、最高温度。低于最适温度,其生长速率(世代时间,Tg)降低。略低于最适温度往往不能杀死微生物。高温下,蛋白质凝固,细胞成分发生变化,因此,一旦温度高于最适温度,微生物生长曲线迅速下降。
Here we can see the effect of temperature on the growth of Salmonella typhimurium.
At 25°C, it reaches stationary phase in one day; at 10°C, stationary phase is not reached in five days. At temperatures lower than 10°C, growth is negligible.
由图可知温度对鼠伤寒沙门氏菌生长的影响。 25°C时,只需一天就达到微生物生长稳定期, 10°C时,五天也不能达到微生物生长稳定期。低于10°C,微生物生长可忽略不计。
Here we can see the growth ranges of several foodborne pathogens.
由表可知适宜某些食源性致病菌生长的温度范围。
Toxigenic moulds are also affected in the same way.产毒素霉菌也受温度的影响。
Temperature affects microbial growth. Most bacteria found in foods grow best at 28 - 45°C. Some can grow rapidly at 20 - 25°C. Foods should never be kept in warm surroundings for more than one or two hours, although hot storage (> 60°) is safe for short periods.
In the cold, bacteria multiply slowly. Chilling in the refrigerator (optimum 3°C; maximum 10°C) will prevent or slow the growth of microorganisms. A few can multiply under these conditions; in the freezer, most live but do not reproduce. Boiling and pasteurizing kills bacteria in a few minutes but it does not kill heat-resistant spores or destroy heat-resistant toxins. That is why cooked food should be eaten immediately.
Here we can see a picture of the critical temperatures, showing that microorganisms grow within a specific temperature range known as danger zone.
温度影响微生物生长。大多数细菌在食品中的最适生长温度为28 ~ 45°C,有些细菌在20~25°C下能迅速生长。虽然高温(> 60°) 贮存短时期不影响产品的安全性,但是,千万不要将食品在温暖的环境中存放1或2小时。
在较冷的环境中,细菌繁殖迟缓。在冰箱中冷藏(最适温度为3°C ,最大温度为10°C )能预防或减缓微生物生长。在这些条件下,仅少数微生物能够繁殖,在冷冻条件下,大多数活细胞不能再生。沸腾和巴氏杀菌能在几分钟内杀死细菌,但是却不能破坏有耐热性的孢子或毒素。这就是烹饪后食品应该立即食用的原因所在。
由临界温度图可知,微生物只能在特定的温度范围内生长,该范围又称为危险区域。
These microorganisms can grow at low temperatures, and chilling alone is not a good technology for prevention of their growth .
这些微生物能在低温下生长,因此,冷藏不是预防这些微生物生长的好方法。
Reduction of water activity is an important technology to control microbiological hazards. The underlying principle is that microorganisms need water to grow. In their natural state, many foodstuffs contain sufficient water to support the growth of microorganisms. By decreasing the amount of water in food or its availability to microorganisms, growth of microorganisms can be prevented.
减少水分活度是控制微生物危害的重要方法。其根本原理就是微生物生长需要水分。在自然状态下,许多食品原料都含有充分的水供微生物生长之需。减少食品中水分含量或微生物生长所需的有效水分,就能防止微生物生长。
The term « water activity » refers to the availability of water in a food, and should not be confused with water content; a food may have a high water content but if much of this water is bound by food components, it would not be available to microorganisms. It could then be said that the food has a low water activitiy.
Water activity affects both the rate of growth of microorganisms and production of toxins, as well as kinetics of chemical and enzymatic reactions.
术语水分活度指食品中的有效水分,不能将其与水分含量混肴。某种食品水分含量虽高,但是,如果其中多数水分与食品中的其它成分结合在一起,那么这些水分就不能被微生物利用。也可以说,该食品的水分活度低。水分活度既能影响微生物的生长速率及其产生的毒素,又能影响化学反应和酶反应的动力学。
Water activity is the ratio of water vapour pressure of food to that of pure water. It is a value which varies between 0 and 1.
水分活度等于食品的水蒸汽压P和纯水的蒸汽压P0之比。其值在0~1之间。
This curve shows how growth of microorganisms, production of toxins, and physicochemical reactions are affected by water activity. Dried foodstuffs are most stable at a water activity of about .
该曲线说明了水分活度对影响微生物的生长、毒素的产生和物理化学反应的影响。水分活度左右的干燥食品最稳定。
Generally, moulds and yeast require lower water activity than most bacteria. Some bacteria, such as can grow at quite low aw levels and can cause problems in foods such as salted meats and cheese.
一般而言,霉菌和酵母生长所需的水分活度比多数细菌低。但是,某些细菌,如金黄色葡萄球菌能在相当低的水分活度下生长,并导致咸肉和干酪这类食品产生问题。
The range of water activity levels in foods is quite large. This table shows that water activity is a selective parameter that determines which microbes will grow.
食品中水分活度的范围相当宽。该表说明,水分活度是决定哪些微生物将在其中生长的选择性参数。
At water activity <, food starts to become shelf-stable, as no growth occurs but microorganisms may remain viable. This means that as soon as water is added to dehydrated food, precautions required for a fresh food apply because surviving microorganisms can grow again.
水分活度<,食品有稳定的货架期,因为此时微生物不能生长,但是,微生物仍残存于其中。这意味着只要脱水食品的水分含量增加,就必须向对待新鲜食品一样,注意防止(残存)微生物的生长。
Various technologies can be applied to control water activity. Old preservation techniques such as salting and jam making etc. are based on lowering the water activity.
控制水分活度的方法有多种。传统保藏技术,例如,盐渍和制作果酱,其原理都是降低水分活度。
Here we see water activity of different concentrations of salt and glucose at 25°C.
Weight for weight, salt is more effective than glucose. However, comparison should be made on a mole for mole basis, because water activity is a function of the number of molecules or ions in the water. Salt, besides being of a lower molecular weight, also dissociates in two ions.
由该表可知, 25°C 下不同浓度盐和葡萄糖溶液的水分活度。
从重量比看,盐比葡萄糖更有效。但是,这种比较应该以摩尔比为基础,因为,水分活度是水中分子或离子数量的函数。盐不但分子量低,而且其溶于水中可形成两个离子。
Low and high pH limit the growth of pathogens.低或高pH均能抑制致病菌。
The effect of pH is different for different organisms. 微生物不同,pH对它们的影响也不同。
These limits can be affected by the nature of the acid.酸的性质影响 pH抑制微生物的效果。
It should, however, be remembered that microorganisms can grow at a wider pH range in laboratory media than in foods.
但是,我们必须知道,与在食品中相比,微生物在实验室培养基中能在更宽的pH范围内生长。
These are examples of technologies which are used based on the pH of the food. The effect of some technologies fermentation is the result of low pH as well as the presence of antimicrobial agents and competitive microorganisms.
列举了根据食品pH选择加工技术一些实例。有些生产工艺能产生降低pH、产生抗菌素和竞争性微生物等作用。
Here pH values of some foods are listed. We can see that most perishable foods have a pH close to 7.
这里列出了一些食品的pH值。从中可知,易腐败食品的pH接近7。
By rendering food microbiologically safe, we mean eliminating or reducing a microbiological hazard in the food to a safe level. Examples of such technologies are heat treatment, food irradiation, chemical disinfection, freezing (for parasites), and high pressure.
提高食品微生物安全性指消除或将食品中微生物危害减少到安全水平。这些加工技术有加热处理、食品辐射、冷冻(仅对寄生虫有效)、和高压处理技术。
Heat treatment is the most effective and common method for destroying pathogens. Foods can be heat-treated by contact with hot air, steam or hot water, hot oil or a hot surface or by using microwaves.
杀灭致病菌最有效、最常用的方法是加热处理。与热空气、蒸汽、热水、热油或热表面接触或利用微波都可以对食品进行热处理。
Each of these treatments has a related process: pasteurisation, sterilisation, microwave treatment, or household or artisan processes such as cooking and boiling.每种热处理形式都有相应的加工方法:巴氏灭菌、杀菌、微波处理、或 ,如烹饪和煮沸。
All the processes use similar parameters to ensure the safe application of these technologies. To understand this, we need to examine how organisms behave during a heat treatment process. 为了确保这些技术的安全应用,热处理过程中应用了相似的参数。要理解其中的道理,就需要知道热处理过程中微生物的行为。
Therefore, the plot of log N/No at a given temperature T against time gives a straight line with a negative slope, k. The number of cells present in the food after different heating periods depends on the initial number of organisms and the death rate k.
因此,在给定温度下,用log N/No 对时间作图可得到一根直线(热力致死速率曲线),该直线具有负斜率K。经过不同时间热处理后,食品中的残存菌数取决于原始菌数和死亡率K。
log N/No= -kt
The reciprocal of the death rate (1/k) is a measure of the organisms’ heat resistance, known as the D value.
细菌死亡率的倒数(1/k) 表示微生物的耐热性,称之为D值。
The D value or decimal reduction time is defined as the time, at a given temperature, for the population to be reduced by 90% or one log 10 value.
D值或指数递减时间指在一定温度下,某细菌数群中每杀死90%原有残存活菌数所需的时间,或减少一个对数循环所需的时间。
The higher the D-value, the more heat resistant the organisms. Vegetative cells are relatively heat sensitive; they will be destroyed by heating food for a few minutes or even seconds. Listeria monocytogenes and Staphylococcus aureus are, among vegetative forms of bacteria of importance in food safety, the most heat resistant.
D值越高,微生物的耐热性越强。活菌对热相当敏感,只要将食品加热数分钟,甚至数秒就能将其杀死。在对食品安全影响较大的各类细菌中,李斯特单胞菌、金黄色葡萄球菌的耐热性最强。
The temperature at which a D value applies is indicated by a subscript . D65. The D value changes with temperature. As temperature increases, a shorter time is required to destroy organisms; therefore the D value decreases.
某温度下的D值用下标表示,例如, D65表示65度下的D值。D值随温度而变。温度越高,杀灭细菌所需时间越短,因此D值越小。
Spores of bacteria are usually far more heat resistant than their vegetative forms, and will be destroyed only by temperatures above 100°C.
通常,细菌芽孢的耐热性高于相应的活细胞,因此,温度必须达100°C以上才能将其杀死。
C. botulinum is the most heat resistant spore-forming pathogen, and is of particular concern to the canning industry. To ensure safety, the canning process is designed to achieve a 12-fold reduction of this pathogen. Such a processing or its equivalent is referred to as “botulinum cook”.
肉毒梭状芽孢杆菌是最耐热的能形成芽孢的致病菌,因此,在罐头工业中倍受关注。为了确保安全,罐头工业
Factors other than temperature influence heat resistance. Bacterial spores are more resistant than vegetative forms, because of their structure and composition and the low water content in their spore core. Yeasts, ascospores and the asexual spores of moulds are slightly more resistant than the vegetative form of bacteria and are normally killed by temperatures between 65 and 100°C.
除了温度外,还有许多因素影响耐热性。由于芽孢的结构、组成、芽孢中含水量较低等原因,细菌芽孢的耐热性远远高于其活细胞。酵母、囊孢子和霉菌无性孢子的耐热性不及活细菌,杀菌温度通常在65 ~ 100°C之间。
The age and state of growth of microorganisms, and the composition and physicochemical parameters of the medium (such as pH, water activity) also affect heat resistance. For instance, vegetative cells are more heat resistant in their stationary phase than in their log phase. Cells also show greater sensitivity if pH is decreased below 6 or increased above 8. Fat (low aw) enhances heat resistance. Bacterial spores suspended in oil are more heat resistant than in an aqueous system: for example, Salmonella senftenberg is more resistant in milk chocolate than in skim milk. This has implications for pasteurisation of high sugar content products such as ice-cream mix. Low water content also increases heat resistance. This means it is more difficult to destroy organisms in a dry medium than in a wet medium.
微生物的年龄和生长状态,培养基的组成和物理化学参数(如, pH、水份活度)也会影响其耐热性。例如,延滞期的活细胞比对数生长期的活细胞更耐热。在pH低于6或高于8的环境中,细胞对热的敏感性较高。脂肪(水分活度低)能提高细菌的耐热性。悬浮于油中的细菌芽孢比其在水相中更耐热。例如,沙门氏菌在奶油巧克力中比其在脱脂乳中的耐热性高。这意味着含糖高的产品,如冰琪琳,需要较高的巴氏灭菌温度。水分含量低也会增加耐热性。因此,杀灭干燥介质中的细菌比杀灭潮湿介质中的细菌更难。
These data show the influence of the composition of the medium on the heat resistance of Salmonella senftenberg. The organism is more heat resistant in the presence of sugar than of salt.
这些数据表明培养基的组成对沙门氏菌耐热性的影响。微生物在含有糖的培养基中比在含有盐的培养基中更耐热。
The heating process is not instantaneous. The temperature increase varies with a number of factors. The curve in this figure shows an example of the heating and cooling process of a food product.
加热过程不是瞬间就能完成的。温度增加的速度随许多因素变化。由图中的曲线可知食品加热和冷却过程。
Above the lethal temperature, temperature increase contributes to the destruction of the organisms. Therefore, the lethal effect of the warming and cooling process should also be taken into account.
在热致死温度以上,温度的增加有助于杀死微生物。因此必须考虑升温和冷却过程中的
To calculate the lethal effect of the entire process, it is necessary to integrate the lethal effect at each temperature over the entire process.
为了准确计算整个过程中的热致死效果,必须考虑整个加热过程中各温度下的热致死作用。
As well as eliminating harmful microorganisms, heat treatments have other effects on the food. The effect of heat treatment on enzymes or vitamins are characterized by the same type of parameters . D-values as are used for microorganisms.
除了消除食品中有害微生物外,热处理还会产生其它效果。热处理对酶或维生素的影响也可以用同类参数描述,就象用D值描述微生物特性一样。
Pasteurization is a heat treatment of fluid food, intended to kill vegetative forms of pathogens, while causing minimal changes in its composition, flavour, and nutritive values. It can be effective at different time-temperature combinations, for example at 63°C for 30 minutes or at 135°C for 1 second.
巴氏杀菌是一种液态食品热处理方法,其目的是在杀灭致病菌活细胞的同时,将热处理引起的食品组成、风味和营养价值的不良影响降至最低。在不同的时间—温度条件下,如, 63°C 下保持30分钟或135°C 下保持1秒,均能达到该效果。
Heat treatment is not uniform. Depending on the product and the conditions of heat and mass transfer from the heating medium to the product, there will be a temperature gradient in the food. This has important implications for monitoring heat treatment.
热处理不是一个均衡的过程。食品中的温度梯度取决于食品的种类、加热条件、加热介质与产品之间的传质等因素。了解温度递度对监控热处理过程具有重要意义。
This figure illustrates the gradient of temperature in a hamburger. Depending on the place the temperature is monitored, these temperatures can vary greatly. To ensure that all parts of the product have received the minimum heat treatment required, it is important to measure the slowest heating point or the coldest point of the product. In this example, as in many other solid foods, the coldest point is the center.
幻灯片显示了汉堡包中的温度递度。监控温度时选择的测量点不同,测得的温度将存在很大差别。为了确保产品的各个部分都达到最低热致死温度,应该选择产品中热传递最慢的点或最冷的点进行测量。与其它固体食品一样,汉堡包的中心就是最冷的点。
Products heated by a microwave treatment may show cold and hot spots.
微波处理的产品有可能存在冷点和热点。
In microwave heating, heat is generated due to intermolecular friction between water molecules.
Water molecules are dipoles which change orientation under oscillating electromagnetic radiation.
A number of factors such as the geometry, physical and dielectric properties of the product influence the heating process and may cause differential heat treatment. Therefore, even if the heat transfer is relatively rapid, caution is necessary: if the structure of a food is heterogenous, not all the parts will be heated at the same rate. This may result in hot and cold spots. The same is true for ohmic heating. In this method, an electric heating current is passed through the material. The heating rate is a function of the electric conductance of the solid and liquid phases.
在微波加热过程中,水分子之间相互摩擦产生热量。在电磁辐射的激发下,偶极水分子的方向发生变化。影响微波热处理过程的因素(如产品的结构、物理性质和电介质性质)很多,并因此产生不同的效果。所以,尽管传热速度相当快,但必须注意:如果食品的结构是异质的,就不能以相同速率加热食品的各部分,结果会导致食品中出现热点和冷点。在电阻加热过程中也是这样。在该方法中,加热电流通过原料。加热速率是固相和液相电导系数的函数。
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Freezing has two different types of action on microorganisms. 冷冻对微生物有两种不同的作用。
In terms of food safety, freezing can be used only to kill parasites and a minimum of 24 to 48 hours at -18°C is needed to kill them. Bacteria and viruses survive freezing. Enzymatic activity such as polyphenol oxidase and lipase may take place. However, since multiplication of microbes is not possible, freezing is an important measure to control microbiological hazards.
就食品安全而言,冷冻只能杀死寄生虫,而且,需要在-18°C 下贮存24~48小时才能杀死寄生虫。细菌和病毒能在冷冻条件下生存。酶(例如,多酚氧化酶和脂肪酶)在冷冻条件下也可能具有活性。但是,由于微生物在冷冻条件下不可能繁殖,因此,冷冻是控制微生物危害的重要措施。
Food irradiation is another process used to render foods safe. It involves treating food with ionizing radiation of known energy for a specific time to extend shelf-life; destroy or inactivate insects, parasites, pathogenic bacteria, moulds and yeast; prevent decay or ripening of fruits and vegetables; inhibit post-harvest sprouting of tuber and bulb crops.
提高食品安全性的另一种方法是食品辐射处理。利用已知能量的离子射线处理食品,以提高货架寿命,杀死或钝化昆虫、寄生虫、致病菌、霉菌,防止水果和蔬菜腐败或过熟;抑制块茎和球茎作物发芽。
The types of radiation that are used are Gamma rays, electron beams or Xrays. Of these only 60Co (cobalt) and electron beams have achieved major importance.
食品中应用的辐射类型有伽玛射线、电子束或X射线。其中只有钴60Co和电子束具有重要的应用价值。
Food irradiation may be used for various objectives. 食品辐射可用于各种目的。
Low-dose irradiation (up to 1kGy) is used for insect disinfestation and parasite inactivation, and to inhibit sprouting.
低辐射剂量(等于1kGy) 可杀死昆虫和寄生虫,抑制发芽。
Medium doses (1-10 kGY) irradiation are used to extend shelf-life, eliminate spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms and improve technological properties of food.
Because inactivation of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms through irradiation occurs without any substantial increase in temperature, this process is sometimes referred to as « cold pasteurization »
中等辐射剂量(1-10GY)常用来延长货架期,除去致病菌和改进食品品质。
由于利用辐射杀灭致病菌和腐败微生物不会大幅度提高温度,因此,有时将这种灭菌方法称为“低温巴氏杀菌”。
High doses (10-50 kGy) are used for industrial sterilisation and decontamination of certain food additives, ingredients and particularly spices, and for production of special, pathogen-free diets for hospitals, sport and military uses.
高剂量辐射处理常用于工业灭菌,以消除某些食品添加剂、配料,特别是某些调味料中的污染,也用于某些特殊用途食品的灭菌,如,向医院、运动员和军队提供的无菌食品。
The dose needed to ensure safety depends on the type of hazard. The smaller the organisms, the higher the required dose.
The destruction of the organisms is achieved by damage to the genetic material of microorganisms present in the food, either by direct radiation effects on DNA or through the production of radicals and ions that attack DNA.
It should be remembered that toxins mycotoxins or bacterial toxins are radiation-resistant and cannot be inactivated at practical dose levels.
Viruses are put between brackets because irradiation is not normally used to kill viruses, since they require a very high dose.
保证安全所需的辐射剂量取决于危害的类型。微生物越小,需要的辐射剂量越高。辐射能破坏微微生物内的基因物质,或直接影响DNA,或使DNA产生各种激发态分子和离子,从而达到杀死食品中微生物的目的。
毒素(如霉菌毒素、细菌毒素)具有抗辐射的能力,常用辐射剂量不能破坏毒素。
病毒介于二者(微生物和毒素)之间,由于杀灭病毒需要很高剂量,所以通常不用该方法。
Consumer organisations have expressed great concern regarding food irradiation. However, it has been assessed as safe at any dose by IAEA, FAO and WHO. In terms of nutritional quality, food irradiation can cause small changes both in macronutrients and micronutrients, comparable to those associated with conventional food processes such as cooking.
No significant changes occur to essential aminoacids in beef, fish or other foodstuffs. Minerals and trace elements are also unaffected by irradiation.
The effect of irradiation on vitamins varies depending on the food type, the vitamin in question and the process and storage conditions. Some vitamins are easily destroyed (. vitamin B1: thiamine) while others are relatively insensitive.
Since irradiated meat, poultry and seafood still have a "fresh" appearance, irradiation could be an important treatment to render raw foods of animal origin microbiologically safe.
消费者组织对辐射食品相当关注。但是,国际原子能组织、国际粮农组织以及世界卫生组织对各种剂量处理的辐射食品进行了评估,认为它具有安全性。至于食品的营养价值,与传统食品加工方法(如烹饪)相比,食品辐射处理对常量营养素和微量营养素的影响很小,对牛肉、鱼或其它食品原料中必需氨基酸没有显著影响,对矿物元素和痕量元素也没有影响。
辐射对维生素的影响取决于食品种类、维生素种类、加工和贮藏条件。有些维生素很容易被破坏,如,维生素B1和维生素E;而有些维生素则相当稳定。
由于辐射处理过的肉、禽和海产食品仍具有“新鲜”的外观,因此,辐射是提高动物源食品原料微生物安全性的重要方法。
Ultra violet (UV) radiation has limited penetration and thus its application in food safety is also limited. It is useful for destroying microorganisms in air, surfaces and in thin liquid films. Mould spores are quite resistant.
紫外辐射穿透物质的能力有限,因此,其在食品安全方面的应用也有限。紫外线可用于杀死空气中、物质表面和液体薄膜上的微生物。但是,霉菌孢子对紫外线有很强的抵抗力。
Chemical disinfectants can be used to kill different microorganisms. For instance, for water, disinfectants such as chlorine, chlorine dioxide, chloramines and iodine can be used. Chemical disinfection can also be used for fruits and vegetables, surfaces and equipment. In this lecture we will discuss chlorination of water as an example. Disinfection of surfaces and equipment will be discussed in the presentation on cleaning and sanitation.
化学消毒可杀灭多种微生物。例如,氯、二氧化氯、氯胺和碘酒等消毒剂可用于水的化学消毒。水果和蔬菜、物质表面和设备也能采用化学消毒。本讲我们以氯水为例展开讨论。在清洁和卫生中讨论物质表面和设备的消毒。
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Usually, the resistance of different pathogens to different disinfectants is expressed in terms of the value needed to reduce microorganisms by 99%.
不同致病菌对各种消毒剂的抵抗力通常用值表示。 值指微生物数减少99% 。
is generally the most sensitive. Viruses differ in their sensitivity. Parasites are the most resistant.
大肠杆菌对氯最敏感,各种病毒对氯的敏感性不同,寄生虫对氯的抵抗力最强。
The efficacy of the disinfection process depends on the purity of the water because the disinfectant may be neutralized by organic matter and readily oxidizable compounds in water. Microorganisms that are aggregated or absorbed by a particular material may also be partly protected from disinfection. It is therefore important to treat the water before disinfection to produce a water with a median turbidity not exceeding 1 nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) and not exceeding 5 NTU in any single sample.
消毒功效取决于水的纯度,因为,消毒剂有可能被水中的有机物质和易氧化的化合物中和。被特殊物质聚集或吸附的微生物较难消毒。因此,消毒前对水进行适当处理,使水的半混浊度不超过1浊度的浊度单位(NTU),在任一纯样品中不超过5NTU是很重要的,
Both because of inefficacy of a disinfectant on parasites as well as to remove the organic matters, water needs to be treated before chlorination. This treatment includes many steps: coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation and filtration.
由于消毒过程不能有效杀死寄生虫,也不能有效去除有机物质,因此,在氯化处理前需要对水进行处理,该处理过程包括:凝固、絮凝、沉淀和过滤。
Disinfection of fruits and vegetables has also been considered. The disinfection is practiced in some developing countries. Although it is not fully effective, it may enhance the safety of some fruits and vegetables.
在一些发达国家,对水果和蔬菜也进行消毒处理。虽然不能达到圆满的效果,但是,可以提高某些水果和蔬菜的安全性。
High pressure treatment is a recent technological development. A product in a flexible container is put into a vat filled with a liquid. The vat is pressurized, and the pressure is transmitted through the fluid to all sides of the food simultaneously. The high pressure kills bacteria and spores with different efficiencies depending on some of the parameters mentioned in this overhead.
高压处理是最近开发的一种加工技术。将软质包装的产品放入一只充满液体的容器中。向该容器加压,同时,压力通过液体传向整个食品。高压能杀死细菌和孢子,其效率取决于热处理中提到的一些参数。
The redox potential of foods can be controlled either by removal of oxygen by vacuum packaging or modification of the atmosphere by gas flushing.
利用真空包装除去氧气或充气包装技术能控制食品潜在的氧化还原作用。
In addition to controlling physical parameters, it is also possible to use antimicrobial agents to control the growth of microorganisms. Depending on the food product and microorganisms, different antimicrobial agents can be used. For instance, sodium nitrite is used in the production of ham to control the growth of C. botulinum. It also gives the meat the desired pink-reddish colour.
Bacterocins, . nisin are active against pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes, , and Staphylococcus.
除了控制物理参数外,也可利用抗菌素控制微生物生长。根据食品和微生物的特性选用不同抗菌素。例如,在火腿生产中利用亚硝酸钠控制肉毒杆菌的生长,同时它还使肉产生理想的粉红色。
细菌素(如,尼生素)也具有防止致病菌(如单核细胞李斯特菌、肉毒杆菌和葡萄球菌)的活性。
Some technologies are based on a combination of several factors or processes. Smoking makes use of both heat treatment, drying and sometimes also anti-microbial agents present in the smoke. These techniques are sometimes referred to as "hurdle technologies.“
某些技术是由几个因素或方法组合起来的。烟熏过程中使用了热处理和干燥两种方法,有时也利用烟雾中的抗菌剂。这些技术有时称为“栅栏技术”。
To achieve safety, a combination of several technologies is applied, . milk is pasteurized or sterilized and aseptically packed to prevent re-contamination. In this situation, different technologies are applied with different objectives, . decontamination and protecting from re-contamination.
However, different technologies are sometimes combined to reach a single objective. This type of application of food technologies is referred to as “hurdle technology”, . a technology which is based on several factors affecting growth and survival of microorganisms. Fermentation and curing (low pH, microbial inhibitors, competitive microflora) are examples. Refrigerated processed foods of extended durability include foods where a combination of various technologies are applied with a specific objective, but with minimal changes in the nature of the product. These foods are cooked at lower temperatures than canned foods, to produce the desired organoleptic changes. After heating, products are rapidly cooled and stored under refrigeration. Very often these products are vacuum packed, either before or after the heat treatment. The safety as well as the suitability (prevention of spoilage) of the product is ensured by a combination of heat-treatment, refrigeration and vacuum packaging.
为了保证产品的安全性,常常将几种工艺组合起来使用,例如牛奶巴氏灭菌或杀菌后无菌包装以防止二次污染。在这种情况下,每种工艺都有其作用和目的,即消除污染和防止二次污染。
但是,有时是为了达到一个目标而将不同工艺组合起来。这类食品工艺称之为“栅栏技术”,即根据影响微生物生长和生存的几个因素而建立的一种技术。发酵和处理(低pH、微生物抑制剂、竞争性微生物群落)就是个例子。
加工食品的冷藏不但可以延长贮存期,而且产品性质的变化也最小,为了达到这一目的,将多种加工技术组合为一体。这些食品的烹饪温度比罐头食品低,并产生了预期的感官变化。加热后,迅速冷却产品,并进行冷藏。这些产品常常在热处理前或热处理后采用真空包装。将热处理、冷藏和真空包装技术组合起来,从而保证了产品的安全性和适宜性(防止腐败)。