译文标题
营销管理
原文标题
Marketing Management
作 者
Noel • Cape
译 名
诺埃尔·凯普
国 籍
美国
原文出处
21世纪的营销管理
营销管理
本文将阐述下列问题：
●营销的重要性
●营销学的基本知识
●营销管理的演化
●营销的基本概念
营销真是无处不在，我们周围德人或者组织从事着的多数活动都可以正式或非正式地被算作营销，良好的营销越来越成为商业成功的重要因素。营销对我们的日常生活产生着深刻的影响，从穿着的衣物到上网被点击的广告，它已经植根于我们的日常生活之中。
成功的营销并非偶然，需要精细的规划和操作。各行各业对营销的定义都在不断变化，以期增加他们的成功率。但优秀的营销计划是很少且难以实现的。营销是一门“艺术”和“科学”结合的学科，它既有惯例化的模式，又需要创造性的灵感。
一、营销的重要性
企业的营销能力经常是其赢利的保证。如果没有充足的对于产品和服务的市场需求来为公司创造利润，那么企业的财务、运营、会计和其他方面的努力都只不过是水中月、镜中花。因为销售是企业赢利的基础，许多企业设立了首席营销官（CMO），其地位相当于首席执行官（CEO）和首席财务官（CFO）等主管（C）级别的经理。从消费品厂商到医疗保险企业，从非盈利组织到工业品厂商都会发布鼓吹它们最近营销业绩的报道，这些都能在它们的网站上找到。商业媒体上有着数不清的关于营销战略和战术的文章。
然而，营销亦是复杂微妙的工作，它也成为许多曾经辉煌的大企业的阿喀琉斯之踵。许多大公司，如西尔斯、李维斯、通用汽车、柯达和施乐等知名企业都承认要面对更强大的消费者和新的竞争对手。因此，它们不得不重新审视各自的经营模式。甚至如微软、奥尔玛、英特尔和耐克等市场领导者也承认有这种压力。杰克·韦尔奇（通用电气公司的前任首席执行官）曾不断地告诫他的员工：“要么变革，要么失败。”
要作出正确的决策并非易事，营销经理面临着一系列重大的决策，例如，在新产品设计种产品特征是什么，制定怎样的价格，选择怎样的销售渠道，在广告或销售商投入多少资金；也面临着一些更细节化的决策，例如，新产品的包装上用什么确切的字眼或颜色等。公司承受最大的风险是没有密切关注它们的客户与竞争对手，并不断提升它们产品的价值；而是只以短期销售驱动对待业务；最后，它们将不能维护股东、员工、供应商和渠道合作者的利益，营销的技巧性是永无止境的。
二、营销学的基本知识
我们研究营销，就必须理解什么是营销，营销是怎样运作的，营销什么，以及谁在营销。
(一)什么是营销
营销的任务是辨别和满足人类社会的需要。对营销学所作的一个最简明的定义就是“满足他人的需求且自己也能赢利”。当eBay注意到人们不能够在当地买到他们想要的物品时，发明了网上竞拍业务；或者，宜家（IKEA）注意到人们想以低价购买好的家具，从而创造了可拆卸家具的业务。所有这些都证明了营销的智慧，并把社会或私人的需要变为有利可图的商机。
美国营销协会所下的定义是：营销是一项有组织的活动，它包括创造“价值”，将“价值”沟通输送给顾客，以及维系管理公司与顾客间关系，从而使得公司及其相关者受益的一系列过程。从事交换活动需要相当多的工作和技巧。营销管理的发生，是在一桩潜在交易中至少额爱一方正考虑着从另一方获得所渴求反应的手段时。我们认为营销管理作为一种艺术和科学的结合，它需要选择目标市场，通过创造、传递和传播优质的顾客价值，获得、保持和发展顾客。
我们从社会和管理的角度对营销下定义。一个社会角度的定义表示了营销的社会作用。曾有一位营销者认为营销的作用是“传递一种更高标准的生活”。从社会角度上看，我们认为：营销是个人和集体通过创造，提出出售，并同别人自由交换产品和价值，以获得其所需所欲之物的社会过程。从管理的角度定义，营销经常被描述为“推销产品的艺术”。然而，当人们得知营销最重要的内容并非推销时，不免大吃一惊；推销只不过是营销冰山上的顶点。
可以这样说，某些推销工作总是需要的。然而，营销的目的就是要使推销成为多余。营销的目的在于深刻地认识和了解顾客，从而使产品或服务完全适合他的需要而形成产品自我销售。理想的营销会产生一个已经准备来购买的顾客。剩下的事就是如何便于顾客得到这些产品或服务。
(二)营销是怎样运作的
一个人可以通过四种方式获得一个产品。第一种方式是自行生产产品或服务，如打猎、捕鱼和摘水果；第二种方式是强取，如抢劫或盗窃；第三种方式是乞讨，如无家可归的饿汗乞讨食物；第四种方式是交换，用某些都是，如货物、服务或金钱交换他或她期望的东西。
交换是营销学的核心概念，它是通过提供某种东西作为回报，从某人那儿取得所想要东西的过程。交换的发生，必须符合五个条件：
●至少要有两方
●每一方都有被对方认为有价值的东西
●每一方都能沟通信息和传送货物
●每一方都可以自由接受或拒绝对方的产品
●每一方都认为与另一方进行交易是适当的或称心如意的
如果双方正在进行谈判，并趋于达成协议，这就意味着他们正在进行交换。一旦达成协议，我们就说发生了交易行为。交易是由双方之间的价值交换所构成的，A把X物给予B以换得Y。琼斯给史密斯400美元，从而得到一台电视机。这是一种典型的货币交易，但是，在交易中并不要是把货币作为惟一的用以进行交换的价值。易货交易是双方互换产品或服务，如琼斯律师为史密斯医生写一份遗属，而史密斯为琼斯作一次体格检查。
一次交易包括几个方面的实质内容：至少两个有价值的事物，买卖双方所同意的条件，协议时间和协议地点。通常应建立一套法律制度来支持和强制交易双方执行。如果没有合同法，人们可能在交易中互不信任，从而大家吃亏。
(三)营销什么
营销的对象有十大项：有形的商品、无形的服务、事件、体验、任务、地点、财产权、组织、信息、观念。
(四)谁是营销者
1.营销者和预期顾客
营销者从被称为预期顾客的群体处寻求响应（注意力、交易、选票、捐赠）。如果双方都在积极寻求交换，那么我们把双方都称为营销者。
2.市场
“市场”这个词，传统的观念是指买方和卖方聚集在一起进行交换的实地场所。经济学家现在则用市场来泛指对一个特定产品或某类产品进行交易的卖方和买方的集合（房产市场或粮食市场），现代经济中充满了市场这个概念。
另一方面，营销者经常采用市场这个术语来覆盖各种各样的顾客。他们把卖方看成行业买方则构成市场。他们谈及需求市场（如减肥产品市场），谈及产品市场（如鞋类市场），谈及人口统计市场（如青年市场），也谈及地区市场（如法国市场）。甚至，他们还把这个概念引申到非消费者群体，如选举者市场、劳动力市场和捐赠市场。
3.主要的顾客市场
主要的顾客市场有四个：消费者市场、企业市场、全球市场和非营利市场。
消费者市场 销售诸如软饮料、化妆品、航空机票和运动鞋及设备等大众消费型商品和服务的企业，要花很多的时间以建立优势品牌形象。大多数品牌力量的建立主要依靠研制出一个高质量产品，包装它，确保它的适用性，并以持续的传播和可信赖的服务支持它。
企业市场 推销企业产品和服务的公司所面对的是受过良好训练、信息灵通的专业化购买者，他们对评价有竞争里的报价很内行。企业买主购买商品是为了使它们能够进行织造或再销售给其他人。它们的购买目的是为了赢利。为企业服务的营销人员必须说明他们的产品如何能帮助企业顾客获得更多的利润或更低的成本。广告虽有一定作用，但更具决定性的因素则是：销售队伍、价格、公司在可信度和产品质量上的声誉。
全球市场 在全球市场上推销商品和服务的公司面临着更多的抉择和挑战。它们必须作出决策：进入哪个国家，如何进入（是作为出口商，还是特许经营商、合资企业的合伙人、和约制造商或单独制造商）；如何调整商品和服务的特色，以适应各个国家的需求；如何在不同的国家为产品定价；如何使它们的宣传方式适合每个国家的文化习惯。这些决策的作出要面对各国不同的法律体系，不同的谈判方式，以及对如何购买、拥有、处置财产权的不同要求，它们还要面对不同的语言、各国的政治倾向、货币价值的波动。
非营利和政府的市场 把商品卖给诸如教堂、大学、慈善团体活政府机关这些非营利性组织时，对定价要非常小心，因为这类组织的购买力很有限。较低的价格可能会影响卖方所提供商品的特性和质量。许多政府的购买都以招标的形式进行，在没有其他偏袒因素的影响下，以最低递盘被满足为基准。
三、营销管理的演变
用什么哲学思想来指导一个公司的营销呢？如何摆正组织、顾客和社会三者的利益关系呢？实际上，社会中存在着多种竞争的观念，各种组织无一不是在其中某一个观念的指导下从事其营销活动的，这些观念包括：生产观念、产品观念、推销观念、营销观念和全面营销观念。
(一)生产观念
生产观念是指导卖者行为的最古老的观念之一。它认为，消费者喜爱那些可以随处得到的、价格低廉的产品。生产导向型组织的管理层总是致力于获得高生产效率和广泛的分销覆盖面。这种导向在中国这样的发展中国家是有意义的。那里最大的个人电脑生产商联想和家用电器巨人海尔，通过廉价的劳动力垄断了市场。有些公司想要扩大市场时也采用这种方式。
(二)产品观念
产品观念认为：消费者最喜欢高质量、多功能和具有某些创新特色的产品。在产品导向型组织里，经理们总是致力于生产优质产品，并不断地改进产品，使之日臻完善。然而，许多经理深深地迷恋上了自己的产品，以至于没有意识到他们并没有迎合市场。营销经理陷入了“更好的捕鼠器”的错误之中，幻想只要选出一个更好的捕鼠器，人们就会踩破自家商店的门槛。一个新的或改进过的产品，如果没有价格、分销、广告和其他功能的配合，也是不会成功的。
(三)推销观念
推销观念认为：如果任其自然的话，消费者和企业不会足量购买某一组织的产品。因此，该组织必须主动推销和积极促销。这一观念认为，消费者通常表现出一种购买惰性或者抗衡心理，故需用好话去劝他们多买一些。公司可以利用一系列有效的推销和促销工具去刺激他们大量购买。推销观念可以用可口可乐的前营销副总裁赛尔西奥·齐曼的话来概括：营销就是销售更多的商品给更多德人以获得更多的收入，从而赢得更多的利润。
推销观念被大量用于推销那些非渴求商品。所谓非渴求商品，就是指购买者一般不会想到要去购买的商品，例如保险、百科全书和坟地。在产品过剩时，大多数公司也常常奉行推销观念。它们的近期目标是销售其能够生产的东西，而不是生产市场所需的产品。然而，建立在强化推销基础上的营销有着高度的风险。这种做法的假定是：听了几句好话就去购买的顾客，会喜欢这种产品，如果不喜欢，他们也不会退货或说产品的坏话；他们会忘记自己对产品并不满意，而又去买这个产品。
(四)营销观念
营销概念出现于20世纪50年代中期，它对以前的观念提出了挑战，与以产品为中心以及“织造和销售”哲学不同，我们转到以顾客为中心以及“感觉和响应”哲学。营销用“耕种”代替了“猎取”。如今的工作部再是为产品找到合适的顾客，而是为顾客设计适合的产品。营销观念认为，实现组织诸目标的关键在于正确确定目标市长的需要和欲望，并且比竞争对手更有效地向目标市场创造、传递、沟通优越的顾客价值。营销观念又包括：
(五)全面营销观念
全面营销观念的基础是发展、设计和执行营销计划、过程及活动，它们在这些领域中各自具有宽广度且互相依赖。全面营销理论认为营销应贯穿于“事情的各个方面”，而且要有广阔的、统一的视野。全面营销涉及四各方面：关系营销、整合营销、内部营销和社会责任营销。
四、营销的核心概念、趋势和任务
为了理解营销的功能，我们需要结合当下的趋势，了解某些基本的观念和任务。
(一)核心概念
核心观念创造出营销管理的基础和全面营销的导向。
1.需要、欲望和需求
营销者必须努力理解目标市长的需要、欲望和需求。需要描述了人类的基本要求。人们需要食品、空气、水、衣服和住所以生存。人们还强烈需要娱乐、教育和文娱生活。当人们趋向某些特定的目标以获得满足时，需要便成了欲望。欲望在不同社会的形式是不同的。需求指对有能力购买的某个具体产品的欲望。
2.目标市场、定位与细分
在市场上，一个营销者很难做到使每一位顾客都满意。顾客各有所好，他们不会都喜欢喝同一种软饮料、住同一家旅馆、在同一家餐厅吃饭、驾驶同一品牌的小汽车、选择同一所大学就读或喜欢看同一部电影。针对这一现象，营销者就得从市场细分开始。根据顾客们所喜欢或需要的产品和营销组合的布头，营销者可以把他们分成具有明确特征的消费群体。市场细分往往根据消费者在人文、心理以及行为上的差异来进行。然后，公司可以判断出能为他们创造出最大机会的服务对象，这就是他们的目标市场。公司为每一个目标市场，开发市场供应品。供应品的开发是以目标购买者来定位，它的性能要能够给顾客带来核心利益。
3.供应品和品牌
公司需要提出一种价值观，即一系列用来满足顾客需求的利益。无形的价值可以表现为一种供应品，即产品、服务、信息和体验的组合。
4.品牌
品牌是一种基于被认可而形成的资产，例如，提到麦当劳这个品牌，人们就会联想到汉堡包、乐趣、孩子、快餐、金色拱门，这些就形式了品牌形象。所有公司都在为建立自己的实力强大、受消费者喜欢的品牌形象而奋斗。
5.价值与满意
如果供应品向目标顾客传递了价值和满意，那就表示成功了。顾客在不同供应品中挑选的基础是意识到哪个能给他们带来最大的价值。价值反映了顾客对有形和无形利益及成本的认知。价值大部分可被看作是质量、U和价格的组合，被称为顾客价值三合一。价值随质量和服务的提高而提高，随价格和增加而减少。
价值是营销的核心概念。营销被视为识别、创造、传播、传递和监控客户价值的过程。一个人对产品表现与他的期望值的对比产生了满意度的大小。如产品表现低于期望，则顾客是失望的；如产品表现等于期望，则顾客是满意的；如产品表现超越了期望，那顾客会十分满意或愉悦。
6.营销渠道
为了接触到目标市场，营销人员可通过三种营销渠道。营销者通过信息传播渠道发送信息，并从买主那里获取信息。该渠道包括：报纸、杂志、广播、电视、信件、电话、招标栏、告示、传单、光碟、录音磁带盒互联网。除此之外，还有人员棉布表情、服饰、零售店的外观，许多其他媒介也传递着交流信息。营销人员为了弥补广告等单向渠道的不足，越来越多地增加了对双向交流渠道的使用（邮件、免费电话）。
营销者通过分渠道向购买者和使用者展现、传递有形的产品或服务。他们包括分销商、批发商、零售商和代理人。
营销者可通过服务渠道与潜在的用户打交道。服务渠道包括仓库、运输公司，也包括能方便交易的银行和保险公司。营销者在为他们的销售物选择信息传播渠道、分销渠道、服务渠道这三种渠道的最佳组合时，面临着一个设计问题。
7.供应链
尽管营销渠道把营销者和目标购买者联系起来，但供应链描述了从原材料、零部件到产品的一条传递给最终买主的较长通路。女用钱包的供应链开始于找到皮革制品，进行染色、裁剪、制作，最终进入把产品送到消费者手指中国的营销渠道。供应链代表了一种价值传递系统。每个公司都服务于供应链所产生的全部价值的某一部分。当一个公司打败竞争者，向上游或下游链扩展时，期目标是为了获取一份更高比例的供应链价值。
8.竞争
竞争包括购买者可能考虑的所有实际存在的和潜在的竞争产品与替代物
9.营销环境
竞争仅仅是营销者所面临的机会中的一个环境因素，营销环境由工作环境和大环境组成。
工作环境包括直接影响产品、分销和促销的人。这些人主要由公司内部成员、供应商、分销商、经销商和目标顾客组成。在供应组织中还包括材料供应商和服务供应商，例如营销调研公司、广告代理人、银行和保险公司、运输与电信公司。分销商和经销商中包括代理人、经纪人、制造商代表和其他推进寻找和向顾客销售的人。
大环境有六个因素：人文、经济、自然、技术、政治核文化环境。这些环境因素成为影响工作环境的主要因素。营销工作者必须密切关注工作环境中的这些趋势与发展，并且不断调整他们的战略。
10.营销计划
从实践中看，市场营销是有规律可寻的。营销计划包含分析市场机会、选择目标市场、设计营销战略、制定实行程序和管理执行过程。
(二)营销管理的变化趋势
一系列的重要趋势和因素引出了新的关于商务方面的观念与操作方式，这些促使营销人员从根据上重新思考他们的理论、观念和工具。
从营销人员从事营销到人人都关注营销的转变
公司通常会建立专门的营销部门负责创造和传递顾客价值。但不幸的是，这使得其他部门忽略公司与客户之间的联系。但是，正如惠普公司已故的大卫·帕卡德所言：“营销太重要了，以至于不能单单由营销部门来承担。”公司认识到，并非只有营销部、销售人员、客户服务人员在进行营销，每一个与顾客有接触的员工都应重视营销。因此，公司开始强调各部门间精诚合作的必要性。核心过程的柔性管理越来越受到重视，如新产品实现、客户的开发与维持、订单的执行等。
从以产品单位为中心组织企业运营到以客户群为中心的转变
一些企业正在从单一的按产品分类管理模式向按客户分类模式的过渡。1999年末，加拿大皇家银行以客户情况来设置部门而非以产品或地域来划分。为了仔细研究这项分类，该银行发展出了一系列有新的利润增长点的金融产品与服务，如初次抵押和房产结算等。结果财政收入在接下来的3年中增加了10亿美元，股价在箫条的熊市上扬了100%。
从自力更生到业务外包的转变
越来越多的企业选择拥有品牌而非有形资产，公司从倾向于转包部分业务到转为外包整个公司，它们的格言是：保留核心业务，外包所有别人擅长的。
从使用许多供应商到少数供应商的“合作”的转变
公司正深化与主要的供应商和分销商的伙伴关系。这些企业认为供应商们是一起向最终消费者输送价值的伙伴而非仅是中间商。
从维系过去地位到不断创新的转变
在高度竞争的市场中，公司前进的过程总伴随着营销计划、产品与服务的更新，以及发现顾客需求。企业要不断寻求新的优势而不能沉醉于过去的辉煌。
从强调有形资产到重视无形资产的转变
公司认识到大部分的市场价值来自于无形资产，尤其是品牌、客户基础、员工、供应商关系和知识资本。
从通过广告建立品牌到通过业绩及整合营销传播建立品牌的转变
营销人员已经不再过于依赖于广告或者销售队伍这样单一的传播工具，转而融合多种方式，在每个品牌接触点来传递一个一致的品牌形象给顾客。
从店面销售、人员销售到网络销售的转变
顾客能够在网上了解关于商品的一切信息，包括最佳价格，并可以在网上订单付款。B2B在网络上十分流行。买卖双方通过电脑荧屏即时看到彼此，电子化的人员推销不断增长。
从向每个人销售到努力成为服务于目标市场的最佳企业的转变
目标营销可通过增加在专业杂志、电视频道和互联网新闻组中的宣传进行。公司也大量投资信息系统，以期减少成本和获取竞争优势。它们收集关于个人消费者的交易情况、个人偏好、人文情况和获利性。
从关注营利性交易到关注顾客终身价值的转变
公司通常关注每笔交易以期从中获利。公司关注最有获利价值的顾客、产品和渠道，也评估个人顾客的终身价值，通过设计产品和价格以期在顾客的终身消费中获利。公司现在越来越强调维系顾客关系，获得新顾客的成本可能是留住老顾客成本的5倍。
从关注市场份额到客户份额的转变
一个银行的目标是提升客户存款的份额，超市的目标是抓住大顾客们的“胃”。公司通过提高广泛的商品类目以满足现在有关的客户来扩张顾客份额。它们培训其员工进行交叉销售和追加销售。
从本地化到全球本地化的转变
公司正采取一种集中化与非集中化相结合的模式以平衡国际标准与本地化的差异。最终目标是在保持全球化的指导方针的同时，鼓励更多本地化层面上的原创性与企业家精神。
从仅仅关注财务状况到关注营销状况的转变
许多公司的最高管理层不仅关注销售收入，同样也要关注营销状况，以解释市场份额发生了什么变化，以及顾客流失率、顾客满意度、产品质量等其他方面。他们认识到，营销指数的变化同时意味着财务状况的变化。
从关注股东到关注所有利益关系方的变化
高层管理者更加注重在商业合作伙伴和顾客中创造“双赢”的机会。他们制定为关键利益方平衡回报的政策和战略。
(三)营销管理的任务
营销管理的任务主要有
1.设计营销战略和计划
2.获取营销视野
3.联结顾客
4.建立强势品牌
5.塑造市场供应品
6.提供价值
7.传播价值
8.创造成功的长期成长
附件：英文原件
Marketing Management
This article will address the following issues:
● the importance of marketing
● Basic knowledge of marketing
● Evolution of Marketing Management
● The basic concept of marketing
Marketing really is everywhere around us German people or organizations engaged in the most formal or informal activities can be counted as marketing, good marketing is increasingly becoming an important factor in business success. Marketing on our daily lives with a profound impact, from the wearing of clothing to the Internet by clicking the ads, it has been rooted in our daily lives.
Successful marketing is not accidental, requires sophisticated planning and operations. The definition of marketing all walks of life are constantly changing in order to increase their success rate. But good marketing plan is small and difficult to achieve. Marketing is an "art" and "science" with the subject, it has both the practice of the model, they need creative inspiration.
■First, the importance of marketing
Marketing capabilities are often the profit guarantee. If there is no sufficient market for products and services to create demand for the company profits, then the company's financial, operational, accounting and other efforts are just water, Jing Zhonghua. Because sales are the basis of profitability, many companies set up a chief marketing officer (CMO), the position equivalent to chief executive officer (CEO) and Chief Financial Officer (CFO) and other authorities (C) level managers. From consumer goods companies to medical insurance companies, industrial companies from the non-profit organization to advocate will release results of their recent marketing reports, which can be found on their website. Commercial media has numerous marketing strategies and tactics on the article.
However, marketing is also a complex and delicate work, it has also become big business in many of the once-great Achilles' heel. Many large companies such as Sears, Levi's, General Motors, Kodak and Xerox and other well-known companies have recognized the face of more powerful to consumers and new competitors. Therefore, they had to re-examine their business model. Even as Microsoft, Ao Erma, Intel and Nike have acknowledged market leader in this kind of pressure. • Jack Welch (former CEO of General Electric Company) has constantly warned his staff: "Either change, or fail."
To make the right decisions is not easy, marketing manager faces a number of major decisions, for example, in new product design features is what kinds of products, how to develop the price, choose what kind of sales channels, advertising, or how much money sellers ; also faced with some more details of the decision-making, for example, new product packaging what the exact wording or color. Companies bear the biggest risk is not pay close attention to their customers and competitors, and continue to enhance the value of their products; but only to treat short-term sales-driven business; Finally, they will not safeguard shareholders, employees, suppliers and channel partners interests, the skills of marketing are endless.
■Second, the basic knowledge of marketing We have studied marketing, we must understand what is marketing, marketing is how it works, what marketing and who is marketing.
●First, what is marketing
Marketing task is to identify and meet the needs of human society. Made for marketing one of the most concise definition is "to meet the needs of others and I could be profitable." EBay notice when people can not buy what they want in local goods, the invention of online auction business; or IKEA (IKEA) noted that people want to buy good furniture at low prices, thereby creating a removable furniture business . All of these have proved the wisdom of marketing, and to the needs of the community or into a profitable private business.
American Marketing Association's definition is: Marketing is an organized activity, which includes the creation of "value", the "value" communication to the customer delivery, and management company to maintain the relationship with the customer, making the company and its stakeholders benefit from a series of processes. Engage in exchange activities require a lot of work and skills. The occurrence of Marketing Management, is a potential trading volume of at least love one is considering a response from the other party of the desire for the means. We believe that marketing and management as a combination of art and science, it needs to select the target market, through the creation, transfer and dissemination of high-quality customer value, to obtain, maintain and develop customers.
We manage from the perspective of society and the definition of marketing. Definition of a social point of view that the social role of marketing. Who had a marketing role that marketing is "to pass a higher standard of living." From a social point of view, we believe that: Marketing is through the creation of individual and collective, made the sale, and with others and value the free exchange of products, is seeking to get the things they need the social process. Defined from a management point of view, marketing is often described as "the art of selling products." However, when it became known that the most important elements of marketing is not selling, they would surprise; marketing is just marketing tip of the vertex.
Can be said that some of the marketing efforts are always needed. However, the purpose of marketing is to make selling superfluous. The purpose of marketing a deep knowledge and understanding of the customer, so that the product or service perfectly suited to his needs and the formation of self-selling product. Marketing will have a perfect ready to buy customers. The remaining thing is how to facilitate the customers to get these products or services. ●Second, marketing is how it works
Four ways a person can obtain a product. The first way is self-produced products or services, such as hunting, fishing and fruit picking; The second way is to take strong, such as robbery or theft; The third way is to beg, as homeless, hungry, begging food Khan ; The fourth way is to exchange, some are used, such as goods, services or money exchange for his or her expectations of things.
Exchange is the core concept of marketing, it is by offering something in return from someone there get the things you want to process. Exchange occurs, must meet five conditions:
○ at least two parties
○ Each side has to be other things of value that
○ Each party can communicate information and transfer of goods
○ Each party is free to accept or reject each other's products
○ each party transactions with the other party that is appropriate or desirable
If the parties are conducting negotiations, and tends to reach an agreement, which means that they are doing the exchange. Once agreed, we say that a transaction occurred. Transaction is the exchange value between the two posed, A to X in exchange for things to give B Y. Jones to Smith $ 400 to get a TV. This is a typical currency trading, however, if the transaction is not only for the currency exchange as the value. Barter trade between the two sides exchange the product or service, such as the Jones lawyers to Dr. Smith wrote a survivor, and Smith to Jones for a physical examination.
Several aspects of a transaction, including the substance: at least two things of value, buyers and sellers of the agreed terms, the agreement time and place of agreement. Normally should establish a legal system to support both the implementation and enforcement of the transaction. If there is no contract law, people may distrust in the transaction, which we suffer.●Third, what marketing
Ten items of marketing objects: tangible goods, intangible services, events, experiences, places, property rights, organization, information, ideas.
●Fourth, marketers who
○1, marketing and customer expectations
Marketers from the group known as the place to find the expected customer response (attention, trading, votes, donations). If both sides are actively seeking the exchange, then we both called marketers.
○2, the market
"Market" the word, the traditional concept means that buyers and sellers together for the exchange of field sites. Economists now use the market to refer to a specific product or class of products the seller and the buyer of the transaction set (the housing market or food market), the modern market economy, full of the concept.
On the other hand, marketers often use the term market to cover a wide range of customers. They constitute the seller as a trade buyer's market. They talk about market demand (such as weight-loss product market), talked about the market (such as footwear market), talked about the demographic market (such as the youth market), also touched on regional markets (such as the French market). Even, they even extended the concept to non-consumer groups, such as elections were the market, labor market and donate the market.
○3, the main customer markets
There are four major customer markets: mass market, business market, the global market and non-profit market.
Consumer market, such as soft drinks, cosmetics, sports shoes and equipment, airline tickets and other mass consumer goods and services to businesses, take advantage of a lot of time to build brand image. Most brands rely mainly on the strength of the establishment of a high quality product development, packaging it, and to ensure its applicability, and to continue the communication and reliable services to support it.
Enterprise business market to sell products and services the company is facing is well-trained, well-informed professional buyers, where they offer a competitive evaluation of very knowledgeable. Corporate buyers to purchase goods in order to enable them to be woven or resale to others. Their purpose is to purchase profitable. Marketing services for the enterprise must explain how their products can help enterprise customers get more profit or lower cost. Although a role in advertising, but more decisive factor is: sales force, price, reliability and product quality in the company's reputation.
Global markets in the global market to sell goods and services companies face more choices and challenges. They must make a decision: to enter the country, how to enter (as exporters, or franchise, joint venture partner, and about individual manufacturer or the manufacturer); how to adjust the characteristics of goods and services to suit each country's needs; how different countries in product pricing; how to make publicity for their cultural habits of each country. Make these decisions to face the different legal systems, different approach to negotiations, as well as how to purchase, possess, dispose of property rights to the different requirements they have to face a different language, national political orientation, fluctuations in currency values.
Non-profit and government markets to sell goods such as churches, universities, government agencies such charity live-profit organization, the pricing to be very careful, because purchasing power of such organizations is very limited. Lower prices offered by the seller that may affect the characteristics and quality of goods. Many governments have to purchase the tender form, in the absence of other factors under the influence of favor, is to meet the lowest Bid basis.
■Third, the evolution of marketing management What philosophy to guide a company's marketing How to straighten out the organization, customers and community interests of the three relationship In fact, there are a variety of social concept of competition, in which various organizations and both are under the guidance of a certain idea in their marketing activities, these ideas include: the production concept, product concepts, marketing concepts, marketing concepts and comprehensive marketing concept.
●First, the production concept Production concept is to guide the behavior of sellers is one of the oldest concepts. It considered that consumers that can get anywhere, low-priced products. Production-oriented management is always committed to the organization to achieve high production efficiency and wide distribution coverage. This orientation in developing countries like China is significant. There's largest personal computer maker Lenovo and the appliance giant Haier, dominated by the cheap labor market. Some companies also want to expand the market in this way.
●Second, the product concept
Product concepts that: consumers like high-quality, versatile and has some innovative features of the product. In product-oriented organization, managers are always committed to producing quality products, and continuously improve products, to make better. However, many managers deeply obsessed with their own products, so do not realize they do not cater to the market. Marketing manager into a "better mousetrap" error among the fantasy as long as the election of a better mousetrap, people will step on the threshold of breaking their own shops. Had a new or improved products, if not the price, distribution, advertising and other functions with, it will not succeed.
●Third, the marketing concept Marketing concept that: if any of its natural, consumers and businesses will not be enough to buy an organization's products. Therefore, the organization must take the initiative to promote and actively marketing. The idea that consumers usually buy inert or show a counter mentality, so they need to use good words Ququan buy more. Companies can use a range of effective marketing and promotional tools to stimulate their bulk purchase. Coca-Cola can be used to promote the concept of the former vice president of marketing Purcell Theo • Ziman's words to sum up: the marketing is to sell more goods to more German people to get more revenue to gain more profits.
Marketing concept has been used extensively for non-desire to sell those goods. The so-called non-desire for goods, meaning the buyers are generally not thought of going to buy goods, such as insurance, encyclopedias, and the cemetery. In the surplus of products, most companies often pursue the marketing concept. Their immediate goal is to sell something to produce, rather than producing marketable products. However, based on strengthening the market has a high degree of marketing on the basis of the risk. Assumption of this approach are: listening to a few good words go to buy customers, will love this product, if you do not like it, they would not return or say bad things about the product; they will forget and not satisfied with the product, and and buy this product.
●Fourth, the marketing concept
Marketing concept appeared in the mid-1950s, it posed a challenge to the concept before, and product-centric and "weaving and sale of" a different philosophy, we go to the customer as the center and the "sense and respond" philosophy. Marketing of "farming" instead of "hunting." Today, the Ministry of work and then find the right product for the customer, but to design suitable products for customers. Marketing concept that, to achieve organizational goals is the key to correct various target the mayor's needs and desires, and more effectively than the competition to the target market to create, transfer, excellent communication and customer value. Marketing concept also includes:
●Fifth, Comprehensive marketing concept
a comprehensive marketing concept is based on a comprehensive marketing concept development, design and implementation of marketing plans, processes and activities, they are in these areas and their interdependence with the breadth. Comprehensive marketing theory that marketing should be run through "all aspects of the matter", but also a broad, unified vision. Comprehensive marketing involves four areas: relationship marketing, integrated marketing, internal marketing, marketing and social responsibility.
■Fourth, the core concepts of marketing, trends and tasks
To understand the functions of marketing, we need to combine current trends, to understand some basic concepts and tasks.
●First, the core concept Core concepts of marketing management to create a foundation and a comprehensive marketing guide.
○1, needs, desires and needs
Marketers need to understand the goal of the mayor's needs, desires and needs. Need to describe the basic requirements of humanity. People need food, air, water, clothing, and live it to survive. It is also a strong need for entertainment, educational and cultural life. When people tend to get some specific goals to meet, the need has become desires. Desire to form in different societies are different. Demand refers to the ability to purchase a specific product of desire.
○2, target market, positioning and segmentation
In the market, a marketer is very difficult to make every customer happy. Customers differ from each other, they do not like to drink the same soft drinks, live with a hotel, in the same restaurant, driving the same brand of car, choose the same university studying or like to watch the same movie. In response to this phenomenon, marketers have to start from market segmentation. According to customers who prefer or need the product and marketing mix of cloth, marketers can put them into a clear feature of the consumer groups. Often based on the consumer market segments in the human, psychological and behavioral differences to be. Then, companies can determine for them to create the greatest opportunity to serve, this is their target market. Company for each target market, develop market supplies. Supplies is developed based on the buyer to locate the target, its performance to be able to bring the core benefits to customers.
○3, supplies and brand
Companies need to make one set of values, a series of benefits to meet customer needs. Intangible value can be expressed as a supply of goods, namely goods, services, information and experience combined.
○4, brand
Brand is recognized based on the formation of asset, for example, that McDonald's brand, people will think of hamburgers, fun, kids, fast food, Golden Arches, which will form a brand image. All companies are creating their own powerful, consumer-preferred brand image of the party.
○5, value and satisfaction
If supplies passed to the target customer value and satisfaction, it means success. Customers in the selection of different supplies the basis for realizing that which will bring them the greatest value. Reflects the value of tangible and intangible benefits for customers and cost awareness. Most can be seen as the value of quality, U, and the price of the combination, known as customer value triple. Value with quality and service improvement and improved, with the price and increases.
Value is the core concept of marketing. Marketing is considered to identify, create, disseminate, and monitor customer value delivery process. The performance of a product compared with his expectations of satisfaction with the size of the generated. Such as product performance below expectations, then the customer is disappointed; such as performance equal to the desired product, the customer is satisfied; such as product performance beyond expectations, and that satisfied customers will or pleasure.
○6, the marketing channels
To reach the target market, marketing, marketing personnel can be through three channels. Marketers to send messages through the channels of information dissemination, and obtain information from the buyer. The channels include: newspapers, magazines, radio, television, mail, telephone, bar tenders, notices, flyers, CDs, audio cassette Internet. In addition, there officers cotton facial expressions, clothing, retail appearance, and many other media also convey information exchange. Advertising and marketing staff in order to make up for the lack of one-way channels, more and more to increase the use of two-way communication channels (email, toll-free).
Marketers through the sub-channels to show buyers and users, the physical delivery of products or services. They include distributors, wholesalers, retailers and agents.
Marketing channels are available through service to deal with potential users. Service channels, including warehouse, transportation companies, but also to facilitate the transaction banks and insurance companies. Marketing in their sales material selection for the channels of information dissemination, distribution channels and service channels, the best combination of these three channels, when faced with a design problem.
○7, supply chain
Although marketers and marketing channels to link the target buyers, but the description of the supply chain from raw materials, spare parts to the product of a long transmission path to the end buyer. Began female wallet in the supply chain to find the leather, dyeing, cutting, production, final product to the consumers fingers into the marketing channels in China. Supply chain represents a value delivery system. Each company serves the entire supply chain, the value generated by a part of. When a company beat competitors to the upstream or downstream chain extension, the term goal is to obtain a higher proportion of the value of the supply chain.
○8, competitive
Competition, including the purchase of all those who may consider the existence of actual and potential competition from substitute products and
○9, the marketing environment
Competition marketers face is just a chance of environmental factors, work environment and the marketing environment consists of a large environmental component.
Work environment, including a direct impact on product, distribution and promotion of people. These people mainly by the company members, suppliers, distributors, dealers and composition of the target customers. Also included in the supply of tissue material suppliers and service providers, such as marketing research companies, advertising agents, banks and insurance companies, transportation and telecommunications companies. Distributors and dealers, including agents, brokers, manufacturer representatives and others to find and promote sales to customers who.
There are six major environmental factors: cultural, economic, natural, technological, political, nuclear and cultural environment. These environmental factors will influence the work environment factors. Marketing practitioners must pay close attention to these trends in the work environment and development, and constantly adjust their strategies.
○10, the marketing plan
From practice, however, there is a pattern of marketing to be found. Marketing plan includes analysis of market opportunities, selecting target markets, designing marketing strategies, develop and manage the implementation of the program execution.
●Second, trends in marketing management A series of important trends and factors leads to new ideas and on the business aspects of the operation, which led from under the marketers to rethink their theories, concepts and tools.
Personnel engaged in marketing from the marketing to everyone concerned about the changes in marketing
Personnel engaged in marketing from the marketing to everyone concerned about the changes in marketing
Companies often establish a dedicated marketing department responsible for the creation and delivery of customer value. Unfortunately, this makes other departments ignore the link between the company and its customers. However, as the late David Hewlett Packard • Packard said: "Marketing is too important, so that can not be borne only by the marketing department." Companies recognize that not only the marketing department, sales staff, customer service personnel marketing, every employee in contact with the customer should be emphasis on marketing. Therefore, the company began to emphasize the need for sincere cooperation between departments. Flexible management of core processes more and more attention, such as new product realization, customer development and maintenance, enforcement of orders.
Units from a product-centric organization to a customer base of business operations-centric transformation
Some companies are from a single management by product by customer classification model to the transition. In late 1999, Royal Bank of Canada to set up departments of customer situation rather than the product or geographic lines. To examine this classification, the bank developed a series of new profit growth point of financial products and services, such as first mortgages and real estate settlement. Revenue results in the next three years, an increase of 10 billion . dollars, in the flute section of the bear market share rose by 100%.
From self-reliance to the business transformation outsourcing
More and more companies choose to have a brand rather than tangible assets, companies tend to subcontract part of the business from the outsourcing of the entire company to become their motto is: keep the core business to outsource all others are good.
From the use of many suppliers to the small number of suppliers of "cooperation" of the change
Company is deepening and the main supplier and distributor partnerships. These companies believe that suppliers are transported to the ultimate consumers with valuable partner rather than just brokers.
From the past to maintain the status changes to innovation
In the highly competitive market, the company always accompanied by the process of advancing marketing programs, product and service updates, and the discovery of customer needs. Enterprises must constantly seek new advantages while not immersed in past glories.
Attention from an emphasis on tangible assets to intangible assets, changes
Most companies recognize the market value comes from intangible assets, especially the brand, customer base, employees, supplier relationships and intellectual capital.
From brand building through advertising and integrated marketing to spread through the performance changes in brand building
Marketers no longer overly dependent on advertising or sales force so that a single communication tool and instead integrate a variety of ways, in every brand touch point to deliver a consistent brand image to customers.
From store sales, personal selling, sales changes to the network
Customers can be online all information about products, including best price, and you can order on-line payment. B2B is very popular on the network. Buyers and sellers immediately see each other through the computer screen, electronic personal selling is growing.
Everyone from sales to service to strive to become the best company in the target market changes
Target marketing can increase in professional magazines, TV channels and Internet news group for publicity. Companies invest heavily in information systems, to reduce costs and gain competitive advantage. They collect data on individual consumer transactions, personal preferences, cultural conditions and profitability.
Trading profit from attention to changes in attention to customer lifetime value
Companies often focus on each transaction with a view to profit. Concerned about the value of the company's most profitable customers, products and channels, but also assess the individual customer's lifetime value, through the design of products and prices to consumers in the customer's lifetime benefit. Now increasing emphasis on maintaining customer relationships, acquire new customers and old customers to keep costs may be 5 times the cost.
From a focus on market share to customer share changes
The goal is to enhance a bank's share of customer deposits, the goal is to get the big supermarket customers of the "stomach." Company by increasing the range of merchandise categories in order to meet current customer to expand the customer share. They train their staff to cross-sell and up-sell.
From localized to global changes in the localization of
The company is taking a combination of centralized and decentralized models for the balance of international standards and localization differences. The ultimate goal is to keep globalization's guidelines to encourage more localized at the level of originality and entrepreneurial spirit. From the financial situation to the attention to focus only on changes in market conditions
Top management of many companies not only focus on sales and income, the same should be concerned about the marketing situation, to explain what happens to market share and customer churn rates, customer satisfaction, product quality and other aspects. They recognize that changes in the index also means marketing financial situation changes.
Attention from the concerned shareholders to change all interested parties
Senior managers pay more attention to the business partners and customers to create "win-win" opportunities. They develop as a key benefit Fangping Heng return policy and strategy.
Third, the task of marketing management
The main task of marketing management
○1, the design of marketing strategies and plans
○2, for the marketing perspective
○3, linking the customer
○4, establish a strong brand
○5, shaping the market supplies
○6, provide value
○7, the value of communication
○8, to create successful long-term growth
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