全球化人力资源管理面临的挑战:
亚洲公司在美国的经验教训
CHALLENGES TO GLOBAL HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT:
LESSONS OF ASIAN COMPANIES IN THE .
Rosalie L. Tung博士
加拿大Simon Fraser大学Ming 和 Stella Wong 特聘国际商务讲席教授
Ming & Stella Wong Chaired Professor, Simon Fraser University of Canada
加拿大皇家学会院士
Fellow of Royal Academy of Canada
国际管理学会现任副会长、当选会长
Vice President & President-elect, Academy of Management
January 17, 2001
二十一世纪的战略挑战 (I)
STRATEGIC CHALLENGES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
全球一体化 Globalization
全球战略联盟( 包括跨国合资企业, 特许经营企业,合作生产,合作营销,合作研发企业) Global strategic alliances (includes international joint ventures, licensing, co-production, co-marketing, joint research and development)
员工多元化的趋势 Growing diversity in the workplace
“劳动力2000报告” “Workforce 2000” (Hudson institute)
“全球劳动力2000报告” “Global Workforce 2000”
西方工业化国家人口总体老龄化
Overall aging of the population in industrialized west
移民障碍（包括移居入境和移居国外）的减少
Reduction in immigration and emigration barrier
发展中国家劳动力的教育水平和劳动技能提高
Increased education and skill levels in less developed countries
二十一世纪的战略挑战 (II)
STRATEGIC CHALLENGES IN THE 21ST CENTURY
区域经济整合 Regional economic integration
全球经济整合与本土经济的适应性调整 Global integration versus local responsiveness
培养全球化思维方式 Development of a global mindset
“都市人” 的特点可以用3 Cs来表示 Characteristics of cosmopolitan
观念 (concepts)
能力（competencies）
关系网（connections）
国际化经营和与外企合作人力资源管理挑战（I）
HUMAN RESOURCE CHALLENGES IN GOING INTERNATIONAL/PARTNERING WITH FOREIGN ENTITIES
政治环境的差异 (Difference in political environment）
经济环境的差异 (Difference in economic environment)
文化环境的差异 (Difference in cultural environment)
社会机构环境的差异 (Difference in socio-institutional environments )
法律方面 Legal
* 普通法和成文法的矛盾 Common law versus codified law
* 对待法律和诉讼的态度 Attitude toward law and litigation
* 影响员工工作环境的立法 Legislation affecting the workplace
1964年民权法第VII款禁止在雇用及解雇时，对员工有基于种族、性别、宗教、国籍、年龄和性偏好的歧视 Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act prohibits against job discrimination (including hiring and firing) on the basis of race, sex, religion, national origin, age and sexual preference
国际化经营和与外企合作人力资源管理挑战（II）
HUMAN RESOURCE CHALLENGES IN GOING INTERNATIONAL/PARTNERING WITH FOREIGN ENTITIES
1982: 住友（Sumitomo）美国子 公司一案判决以后，美国最高法院规定外国在美国的子公司受美国雇用法的约束
1982: in response to suit vs. Sumitomo Corporation of America, . Supreme Court ruled that . subsidiaries of foreign-based MNCs are subject to . employment laws
1990 (EEOC 诉 Aramco一案): 美国最高法院决定第七款无治外法权，即它不适用于“在国外雇用美国人时的人事实践”
1990 (EEOC versus Aramco): . Supreme Court ruled that Title VII does not extend “extraterritorially to regulate the employment practices of . firms that employ American citizens abroad
1991 民权法推翻了1990年最高法院的决定，令第七款具有治外法权，即其适用范围扩展到在境外工作的美国人；而当民权条例与工作地点国家法令抵触时，东道国的法令优先于美国民权法。
1991 Civil Rights Act reversed 1990 Supreme Court ruling by extending Title VII to persons working abroad except “where compliance with the civil rights bill would cause (. corporations abroad) to violate the law of the country in which the work is located”. That is, host country laws take precedence over extraterritoriality”
驻美国的日本公司败诉的典型案例
SOME HIGH-PROFILE CASES FILED AGAINST
ASIAN COMPANIES OPERATING IN THE .
性别歧视 (Sex Discrimination):
驻美国的日本住友公司案例 Sumitomo Corporation of America
驻奥尔良Eugene的韩国现代综合商事株式会社案例 Hyundai Electronics in Eugene, Oregon
种族歧视 (Race Discrimination) :
日本跨国企业在美国子公司的选址 (加利福尼亚州：此地亚洲人比例较高适合劳动密集企业；一些企业因为在黑人聚集的地区经营而受到指控）
Location of . subsidiaries of Japanese multinationals (California which is heavily populated by Asians; because of labor-shed ratio requirements, alleged to avoid areas heavily populated by African-Americans)
韩国人和美国黑人的种族关系紧张 (例如Rodney King事件发生以后洛杉矶的种族骚乱)
Racial tensions between Koreans and African-Americans (. race riots in Los Angeles following Rodney King’s incident)
性骚扰（Sexual Harassment) ：
伊利诺伊州三菱摩托公司案例 Mitsubishi Motors in Illinois
性骚扰与种族歧视造成的骚扰
HARASSMENT (RACIAL & SEXUAL)
以下几个事例说明小事情会演变成骚扰事件（案例远不仅限于此）：
Examples of when a single incident may become harassment over time include but are
not limited to:
- 以粗鲁的态度来规范员工的行为 Disciplining an employee in an abusive manner
关于种族的笑话讲一次可以被忽略，多次重复就会被当作一种骚扰
Telling racial jokes that may be ignored once, but not repeatedly
没有正当理由就以解雇对员工进行威胁 Threatening a person’s job without any substantiated reasons
以下是几个程度较轻的个人骚扰案例（案例远不仅限于此）:
Examples of subtle/personal harassment include but are not limited to:
- 评价员工时，蔑视员工的种族、年龄、残疾、宗教、民族和性偏好
Making disparaging comments because of an employee’s race, age, gender,
physical disabilities, religion, ethnicity, sexual preference, etc.
做决策所用标准违反了人权条例；决定制定与被拒绝的性要求有关
Decision making on the basis of prohibited grounds under the Human Rights code, or because of shunned sexual advances
性骚扰与种族歧视骚扰
HARASSMENT (RACIAL AND SEXUAL)
以下事例说明即便没有具体的被指控对象，工作环境本身可构成骚扰:
A workplace can itself be a harassing environment without there being a
respondent to a complaint. Examples of a harassing work environment
include but are not limited to:
无根据流言的散布 Spreading unfounded rumors
有种族或性别歧视性质的涂鸦 Racist/sexist graffiti
侮辱性的招贴海报 Offensive posters
电脑上的淫秽材料 Computer pornography
对骚扰的申诉人进行报复或者威胁进行报复的行为本身构成了骚扰
Reprisal or threat of reprisal against any participants in a complaint of
harassment may itself be considered harassment
性骚扰与种族歧视骚扰
HARASSMENT (RACIAL AND SEXUAL)
骚扰可能发生在具有相同或者不同地位的人之间；男性对女性，女性对男性，同性别之间都可能发生骚扰。
Harassment may occur between people of the same or different status, and both men and women may be the subject of harassment by members of either sex
1995年Ontario 人权调查理事会发现一名雇主应对一起性骚扰事件负责，尽管骚扰发生在原告辞职的当天
1995 Ontario Human Rights Board of Inquiry found an employer liable for sexual harassment even though it was informed of the harassment only on the day the complainant quit her job
性骚扰与种族歧视骚扰
HARASSMENT (RACIAL AND SEXUAL)
美国哥伦比亚特区上诉法庭判决：“对于有敌意的工作环境对雇员所造成的骚扰，在以下情况下，雇主不负责任: 雇主能够证明他/她已经制定政策并采取措施，使受害的雇员了解到或者应该能够了解到雇主并没有纵容该种骚扰的存在，雇员可以向雇主汇报且不用担心带来不良后果。”
. Court of Appeals of the District of Columbia ruled that “an employer may not be held liable for a supervisor’s hostile work environment harassment if the employer is able to establish that it had adopted policies and implemented measures such that the victimized employee either knew or should have known that the employer did not tolerate such conduct and that she could report it to the employer without fear of adverse consequences”
性骚扰与种族歧视骚扰
HARASSMENT (RACIAL AND SEXUAL)
最近几个关于种族歧视骚扰案例的判决 Recent settlements regarding racial discrimination:
Texaco案例（Texaco）
Denny饭店案例（Denny’s restaurants）
最近几个关于性骚扰案例的解决 Recent settlements regarding sexual harassment:
. Grace公司CEO的让步 (1995年3月30日)。该CEO “被指控在几年内对雇员说有性暗示的话并且强行与至少5名女雇员有身体接触”
CEO of . Grace resigned (March 30, 1995). CEO “accused of making suggestive remarks and engaging in unwelcome physical contact with at least 5 women employees over a period of several years”
1995年8月3日，对Dell的CEO的指控使Dell实验室不得不向15名起诉人支付1,185,000美元：
On August 3, 1995, Dell Laboratories ordered to pay $1,185,000 to 15 complainants to settle EEOC complaint against Dell’s CEO for having:
性骚扰与种族歧视骚扰
HARASSMENT (RACIAL AND SEXUAL)
对他的指控包括：
利用手中掌握的就职机会要求异性的性青睐 Requested sexual favors on a quid pro quo basis in exchange for employment opportunities
起诉列入档案后对原告进行报复 Retaliated after the complaints were filed
用具有性暗示的方式抓住并且调戏原告 Physically molested the charging parties by grabbing them in a sexual fashion
在衣服里藏匿重要文件并要求原告自己取出 Concealed important documents on his clothing and demanded that the charging parties retrieve them
强迫女性雇员在他家中工作，而当时他身着浴袍、短裤 Forced female employees to work with him in his home while he was wearing a bathrobe or boxer shorts
在其私人办公室方便时，开着卫生间的门 Used the toilet in his personal office with the bathroom door open
说挑逗性的话，行为举止不当，在工作环境中制造令人不快的气氛 Made unwelcome comments and engaged in conduct which created a hostile work environment
一些不适用于美国背景的亚洲式人力资源管理方式
SOME ASIAN HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES
THAT ARE PROBLEMATIC IN THE . CONTEXT
雇用员工时搜集个人资料，这些资料包括：年龄、民族、性别、婚姻状况、子女、身体健康状况、外表以及宗教派别等。Personal data sought at hiring, including age, ethnic origin, gender, marital status, children, physical attributes of candidate, religious affiliation, …
使用政治上避讳的语言，比如用“girl”来称呼成年女子，用“negroes”称呼非洲裔美国人Politically incorrect language, such as use of “girls” in referring to full-grown women, “negroes” in referring to African-Americans
北美社会使用委婉语的频率提高。比如：“mentally challenged”形容某人智商有问题, “vertically challenged”则说的是人的身材矮小等等。Increase in use of euphemisms in North American society, such as “mentally challenged”, “vertically challenged”, ….
工作分派的性别模式化。比如女性作打字员和接待员。Sexual stereotyping of jobs, such as women as typists and receptionists
语言行为虽出于无心，但是可能被理解为性骚扰。包括对于外表的评论，强行提出性要求，以及利用职权之便要求获得性青睐 Language and behavior, however unintentional, that may be construed as sexual harassment, including but not restricted to comments about one’s physical appearance, unwanted sexual advances, including abuse of position of authority to gain sexual favors
一些不适用于美国背景的
亚洲式人力资源管理方式
SOME ASIAN HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES (continued)
隔离化的交流模式：倾向于主要和背景相同的人交往
Separation mode of interaction – tend to socialize primarily with others of same ethnic background.
“Homophilly”
当不懂方言的人在场时说自己的方言
Use of own language in presence of others who don’t speak the language
一些不适用于美国背景的亚洲式人力资源管理方式
HUMAN RESOURCE CHALLENGES (continued)
制度方面（Institutional） :
劳资关系（和谐式还是对抗式） Labor-management relations (harmonious versus confrontational)
国家的工会化程度 Extent of unionization in country
文化方面（Cultural） :
组织团体文化：“公司最上层管理人员关于他们应该如何要求自己，如何管理其他雇员以及如何开展经营有相同的理念” Organizational/corporate culture: “shared beliefs top managers in a company have about how they should manage themselves and other employees, and how they should conduct their business(es)”
职业文化：从事专门职业的人群，比如工程师、医师或者会计，有相同的道德观念和行为方式。Professional culture: shared code of ethics and other commonalities shared by members of a given professional group, such as engineers, physicians and accountants
民族文化: “民族成员共同的,区别于其他民族的行为规范; 这种规范使一类人群区分于另外一类人群。 Cross-national: “collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another” (Hofstede)
跨民族的文化交流
CROSS-NATIONAL CULTURE (continued)
“文化是一个社会群体共同接受，并用以指导认知、思考、推断、行动和反应的，不断演化的信念、价值观、态度以及逻辑体系的总和。”这一定义意味着文化不是静止的，而随时间推移日益演变。
“Culture is an evolving set of shared beliefs, values, attitudes and logical processes which provides cognitive maps for people within a given societal group to perceive, think, reason, act, react, and interact. This definition implies that culture is not static; rather, it evolves over time” (Tung)
文化融合和文化分异 Cultural convergence versus divergence
推动文化融合的因素 Factors driving toward convergence:
教育 Education
科技 Technology
造成文化分异的因素 Factors driving toward divergence :
人口因素 Demographics
自然资源因素 Abundance of natural resources
文化的交叉融离 Cultural cross-vengeance
文化可以用洋葱的层瓣结构来作比 Culture can be likened to layers of an onion
文化的多元性
SOME SALIENT CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
高背景文化与低背景文化: High- versus Low-Context Cultures (Hall):
高背景文化 以合成式、螺旋式的逻辑体系为特点，倾向于间接的非对抗的方法来解决冲突
High-context cultures are characterized by “synthetic, spiral logic” and prefer an “indirect, non-confrontational” mode of conflict resolution
覆盖了世界人口的70% (主要是亚洲人和拉丁美洲人）
70% of world’s population (most Asian and Latin American countries)
具有这一类文化特征的国家常有贿赂的现象
High correlation between high-context cultures and the use of questionable payments
低背景文化以分析式、线性的逻辑体系为特点，倾向于用直接的、对抗式的方式来解决问题
Low-context cultures tend to use “analytic, linear logic” and usually espouse a “direct, confrontational” attitude toward conflicts and conflict resolution
-- 美国、加拿大、斯堪的纳维亚以及西欧的国家属于这一类文化
., Canada, Scandinavian and west European countries
文化的多元性
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS (continued)
一维的时间观和多维的时间观 Monochromic versus Polychronic time
一维的时间观一次只安排一件事情，人们严格遵守时间承诺（比如重视最后期限，进度表）Monochronic time involves doing one thing at a time, takes time commitments (deadlines, schedules) seriously
多维的时间安排一次并列处理多件事情，而轻重缓急以事情之间的关系为准，计划经常变动 Polychronic time involves doing several things at a time, bases promptness on the relationship, changes plans often and easily
交流Communication
只有30%的交流是语言交流 Only 30% of communication is verbal
研究表明相当数量的空难或者险些成为的空难的事件源于交流上的差错，原因包括 Study reveals that large number of air disasters or near disasters can be attributed to miscommunication arising from:
语言/方言构成交流障碍 Language/Accents
信息传递是准确的，但是理解方面有误（行话、俚语、口语以及模糊的表达）Transmitted accurately but not understood (jargon, slang, colloquialism, ambiguity)
由于信息发出人和接受人经验区间，认识上产生差异
Failure to build a shared understanding of the situation because of different fields of experience of sender and receiver
使用翻译使问题复杂化（翻译角色就好比看门人）
Compounded by use of translators (gate-keepers)
意译与直译 Interpreters versus translators
非语言的表达占了交流的70%
Non-verbal (or silent language) accounts for 70% of communication :
时间 Time
空间（人身距离以及建筑距离）Space (personal and architectural space)
财产的所有权 Material possessions
友谊的模式(“有人情味”与“没有人情味”) Friendship patterns (“wet” versus “dry”)
商业协议（因地因时制宜的协议和不格变更的协议）Business agreements (organic versus sacrosanct)
文化的多元性
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS (continued)
HOFSTEDE对文化各个方面的划分
HOFSTEDE’s CULTURAL DIMENSIONS
权力距离: 社会中权力和财富分配不平等的程度
Power distance: degree of inequalities in power and wealth in a given society
不确定性规避: 一个社会如何处理未来的不确定的情况
Uncertainty avoidance: how societies deal with uncertainties associated with the future and the unknown
个体主义与集体主义 : 团体中个体和他人之间的关系 Individualism versus collectivism: pertains to an individual’s relationship to others in the group
男性化特质和女性化特质: 不同性别的社会角色;不同程度的进攻性
Masculinity versus femininity: differences of sex roles in society; degree of aggressiveness
文化的多元性
CULTURAL DIMENSIONS (continued)
儒家思想(重新定义长期与短期目标）:如何评价着眼长远、持之以恒的精神、如何看待社会等级关系，如何遵守等级关系，如何评价勤俭的品质以及羞耻感。
Confucian dynamism (re-labeled long- versus short-term orientation): extent to which society values long-term orientation, persistence, ordering of relationships by status and observing this order, thrift, and have a sense of shame
认识模式（EPISTEMOLOGICAL MODES）(Maruyama):人们处理解释信息的方式
（思维结构）（四种HISG)
EPISTEMOLOGICAL MODES (Maruyama): refers to way in which people process and
interpret information (mindscapes)(HISG)
H型：层级式、竞争性、分类的、相继的、答案唯一、加总为零
H-type:hierarchical, competitive, classifying, sequential, one truth, zero-sum
S型: 交互式、合作的、前后相承、同时发生、答案不唯一、加总为正
S-type: interactive, cooperative, contextual, simultaneous, many truths, positive-sum
对分配跨国经营任务的启示 implications for expatriate assignments
分组训练:课题
GROUP EXERCISE: TOPICS
如何处理员工关于性骚扰的申诉
How to deal with complaint from an employee against sexual harassment?
如何处理员工关于性别歧视的申诉
How to deal with complaint from an employee against sex discrimination?
分组训练:思考方式
GROUP EXERCISE: Thinking Approaches
五种思考方式 Five Thinking Hats :
黑色（防范型）Black (cautionary)
红色（冲动型）Red (emotional)
黄色（乐观型）Yellow (optimistic)
蓝色（理智型）Blue (rational)
紫色（创造型）Purple (creative)
文化差异给人力资源管理的启示
IMPLICATIONS OF CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ON H
UMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
语言与非语言交流的重要性 Importance of communication, both verbal and non-verbal
交流能力的5个阶段
无意识的无能力 Unconscious incompetence
有意识的无能力 Conscious incompetence
有意识的有能力 Conscious competence
无意识的有能力 Unconscious competence
无意识的超能力 Unconscious super-competence
员工的管理和激励 Managing and motivating employees
受到国家特定经济发展程度制约的内在的和外在的激励因素 Intrinsic versus extrinsic motivators moderated by level of economic development in the country
启 示
IMPLICATIONS (continued)
概念结构的非普遍性Non-universality of concepts and constructs
道德观念 Morality
三思而后行与老谋深算 Mind games
对竞争的界定 Competitiveness
对权力权益的认识 Rights
为跨国经营任务选择合适的人选 Selection of people for international assignments
处理人际关系的技巧 Human relational skills
技术上的能力 Technical competence
启 示
IMPLICATIONS (continued)
针对跨文化交流进行的训练 Training for cross-cultural encounters
地域研究（Area studies）
文化吸收（Culture assimilator）
语言训练（Language training）
敏感性训练（解冻、变化、再冻结）
（Sensitivity training ） (unfreeze, change, refreeze)
实地工作经验（Field experience）
任用“双文化”人才 Use of biscapal people (also known as transcapers)
文化适应的模式 Acculturation modes
文化适应的模式
MODES OF ACCULTURATION
保留自己的文化Cultural Preservation
Yes
No
Yes
No
资料来源（source): Berry
被合作伙伴所属文化吸引 Attraction to Partner’s culture
融合Integration
被同化Assimilation
隔绝Separation
边缘人Marginalization
其他观察
SOME ADDITIONAL OBSERVATIONS
合法性的需要与经营战略需要 Legal compliance versus business case
应付多元性—重视多元性—珍视多元性 From managing diversity to valuing diversity to celebrating diversity
具有文化差异方面的知识是成功的必要而不充分条件Knowledge of cultural differences is a necessary but insufficient condition to success
关于“心理距离” 的似非而是的说法 Psychic distance paradox
同一文化内部的的差异 Existence of intra-cultural differences
不同性别和不同国籍的人交流模式比较
GENDERLECT (Tannen) AND CR0SS-NATIONAL
COMMUNICATION PATTERNS
性 别 GENDERLECT
男性追求独立Men seek independence;
女性需要依靠Women seek interdependence
男性喜欢冲突；女性喜欢和谐，倾向调和冲突Men prefer conflict;
Women seek to mitigate conflict and thus preserve harmony
男性的交流方式是直接的；女性的交流方式是间接的Men are direct;
Women are indirect
男性之间的谈话就事论事；女性的谈话则主要是为了建立亲密关系Men engage in report talk;
Women engage in rapport talk
男性说教；女性倾听Men adopt a lecturing mode;
women engage in a listening mode
男性说“对”表示同意；女性说“对”表示“我在听”Men use `yeah’ only when they agree;
women use `yeah’ to mean `I’m with you. I follow’
国 籍 CROSS-NATIONAL
美国人推崇独立Americans value independence;
日本人推崇相互依赖Japanese value interdependence
美国人从正面解决问题Americans are confrontational;
日本人力求保持和谐Japanese seek to preserve harmony
美国人交流方式是直接的；日本人的交流方式是间接的Americans are direct
Japanese are indirect
美国人谈话就事论事；日本人谈话时为了建立友善的关系Americans engage in report talk;
Japanese engage in rapport talk
美国人说教；日本人倾听Americans adopt a lecturing mode;
Japanese engage in a listening mode
美国人说“yes”意味着同意；日本人说“yes”表示“我听懂了”Americans use `yes’ when they agree;
Japanese use `yes’ to mean `I understand’
HR Workshop by Beijing International MBA at Peking University
January 17, 2001
HR Workshop by Beijing International MBA at Peking University
“Cosmopolitans” rich in 3Cs: concepts, competence, and connections
January 17, 2001
HR Workshop by Beijing International MBA at Peking University
“Freeze” – Japanese exchange student killed during Halloween
Crash of Colombian jetliner, Avianca, at JFK on January 25, 1990. “Low on fuel”. “Can you hold?”; co-pilot: “I guess so. Thank you very much”. Should have declared fuel emergency
1994 KAL crash. Canadian pilot asked Korean co-pilot to “get your hands off”. Should use, “Don’t touch”
January 17, 2001
HR Workshop by Beijing International MBA at Peking University
Pay differential between highest and lowest paid in Japan (17 versus 53 times in .)
January 17, 2001
HR Workshop by Beijing International MBA at Peking University
Shame versus guilt
January 17, 2001
