International Cooperation
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What is a Joint Venture
A joint venture (JV) is a business enterprise involving two or more legally distinct partner companies, each of which plays more than merely an investment role in the enterprise. A JV is considered international if at least one partner is headquartered outside the country of operation, or if the venture operates significantly in more than one country.
国际合作与战略管理
何为合资
合资公司是由两个或两个以上的合作公司组成的企业， 各方在企业中不仅仅是出资。合资公司中的一方如果总部设在国外，或者合资公司不止在一个国家进行经营，则认为该合资公司为国际性合资公司。
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Why Joint Ventures?
As there are good business and accounting reasons to create a joint venture (JV) with a company that has complementary capabilities and resources, such as distribution channels, technology, or finance, joint ventures are becoming an increasingly common way for companies to form strategic alliances. In a joint venture, two or more "partner" companies agree to share capital, technology, human resources, risks and rewards in a formation of a new entity under shared control.
国际合作与战略管理
为什么要合资？
有好的商业前景并且公司有相应的能力与资源，如分销渠道，技术或融资。合资已经成为企业战略联盟的一种常见方式。在合资公司中，两个或更多的企业分享资金、技术、人力资源，分担风险并且从这个共同管理的新的实体中获利。
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Strategic motives for JV formation
Why do companies form international joint ventures?
Traditionally, to enter the markets of countries with restrictions on foreign investment.
Recently, driven by rapidly changing market conditions.
国际合作与战略管理
建立国际性合资公司的战略目的
为什么建立国际性合资公司?
传统意义上来讲, 外商投资进入一个国家的市场有一定的限制.
最近, 受快速变化的市场情况的影响.
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The number of JVs, both horizontal (occurring between competing companies) and vertical (occurring between companies occupying different positions within the value-chain), has risen dramatically during the past 20 to 30 years.
The greatest stimulus = the emergence of global competition.
Other influences include:
Rapid technological development.
High cost of research and development.
The concentration of players in mature industries.
Government policies in various countries and regions.
国际合作与战略管理
合资公司的数量在过去的20~30年间快速增长,包括横向增长（竞争公司之间）以及纵向增长（价值链内处于不同阵地的公司之间）。
最大的促进因素=全球竞争的加剧。
其它影响因素包括:
科学技术的迅猛发展。
研发的高成本。
商家对成熟行业的共同关注。
不同国家和地区的政府政策。
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The motives for JV formation in order of importance:
Market penetration/expansion
International expansion (internationalization)
Maintain market position in existing market
Economies of scale
Alliance with supplier/distribution channel
Product diversification
国际合作与战略管理
建立合资公司的目的:
市场渗透\扩张。
国际性扩张 (国际化)。
维持在现有市场的地位。
因经营规模扩张而得到的经济节约。
与供应商与分销商联盟。
产品多样化。
International Cooperation
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The motives for JV formation in order of importance:
Spreading risk associated with investment
Payback on investment
Exchange of existing technology
Sharing R&D costs
Develop new technology
Alliance to conform to government policy
Alliance with competitor to reduce competition
国际合作与战略管理
建立合资公司的目的:
分散投资风险。
获取投资回报。
交流现有技术。
共享 R&D 成本。
开发新技术。
联合遵守政府政策。
与竞争者联盟以减少竞争。
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Benefits of Joint Ventures
Provide companies with the opportunity to obtain new capacity and expertise
Allow companies to enter into related businesses or new geographic markets or obtain new technological knowledge
Have a relatively short life span (5-7 years) and therefore do not represent a long-term commitment
In the era of divesture and consolidation, offer a creative way for companies to exit from non-core businesses: companies can gradually separate a business from the rest of the organization, and ultimately, sell it to the other partner company (appr. 80% of all joint ventures end in a sale by one partner to the other).
国际合作与战略管理
合资公司的优势
提供给公司获取新能力和新技术的良机
使公司能够进入相关的业务领域或者进入一个全新的业务领域或是获取新的技术知识
有一个相对较短的生命周期（5~7年），因此不代理长期委托
在剥离与合并的时期，为公司提供一种新的退出非核心业务的方法：公司可以逐步的分离一项业务并最终将它卖给合作伙伴（约80%的合资公司最后由一个合伙人将其卖给另一个合伙人）。
International Cooperation
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Important Factors to be Considered Before a Joint Venture is Formed
Screening of prospective partners
Joint development of a detailed business plan and short listing a set of prospective partners based on their contribution to developing a business plan
Due diligence - checking the credentials of the other party ("trust and verify" - trust the information you receive from from the prospective partner, but it's good business practice to verify the facts through interviews with third parties)
Development of an exit strategy and terms of dissolution of the joint venture
国际合作与战略管理
建立合资公司前应考虑的几个重要问题：
甄别未来的合作伙伴
共同实施一个具体的商业计划，根据各自的表现列出未来合作伙伴的清单
信誉背景调查 – 验证合作伙伴的各种证明 (“信任及校验” – 相信你从合作伙伴那里得来的信息, 但是通过与第三方的交流以便再次得到验证是一种好的商业习惯)
完善退出战略以及合资企业解散条款
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Important Factors to be Considered Before a Joint Venture is Formed
most appropriate structure (. most joint ventures involving fast growing companies are structured as strategic corporate partnerships)
availability of appreciated or depreciated property being contributed to the joint venture; by misunderstanding the significance of appreciated property, companies can fundamentally weaken the economics of the deal for themselves and their partners.
special allocations of income, gain, loss or deduction to be made among the partners
compensation to the members that provide services
国际合作与战略管理
建立合资公司前应考虑的几个重要问题：
最合适的组织结构 (例如，大多数的合资企业都包括处于快速发展阶段的公司作为战略合作伙伴)
投入到合资公司中的增值财产与贬值财产的实用性；对增值财产的错误理解可能会导致对自己以及对合作伙伴的交易的损失
合作伙伴之间在收益与损失之间的分配方式
对提供服务者的报酬
International Cooperation
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Human Resources Strategy
While joint ventures are driven by business needs and are implemented in accordance with a business plan or strategy which is generally stated in financial terms, it is the responsibility of the human resources function to translate the business plan into "people" terms. For a joint venture to be successful, senior management must address important human resources issues and answer the following questions:
What will be your business strategy? How will it impact the people of your organization?
国际合作与战略管理
人力资源策略
合资企业受商业需求的驱动并根据商业计划书或企业战略进行运营，人力资源部门负责将商业计划分配给人。对于一个成功的合资企业来说，高级管理必须参与重要的人力资源管理事务并回答以下问题：
你的商业战略是什么? 它如何对你组织内的员工产生影响?
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Human Resources Strategy
What competences (knowledge, expertise, interpersonal skills) will be required to make the joint venture successful? What type of people should work in the joint venture?
How will you create a hybrid culture that overcomes cross-cultural barriers? How will you bridge the gap between foreign and local management?
What structures, processes, and human resources programs should you implement in the joint venture to support the organizational goals?
国际合作与战略管理
人力资源策略
成功的运营一个合资企业需要什么能力（知识、专业技能、交往能力）？什么样的人适合在合资企业中工作?
如何营造一种融合的文化氛围来消除跨文化壁垒？如何逾越国外管理与本土管理的鸿沟?
你将在合资企业中采取什么样的组织结构、过程以及实施什么样的规划来支持组织目标的实现？
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Human Resources (HR) Action Steps to Prepare for a Successful JV
Business Strategy
Begin with a sound, well-articulated strategy. Before moving forward, determine and explain why you wish to enter into a joint venture, why you have chosen your partner(s), and what you hope to achieve. Define involvement (managerial, capital, etc) of the partner companies and how long the JV will last. Put in place strategies to define governance, accountability, decision-making process, and conflict- and issue-resolution procedures. Ensure buy-in and participation at the highest level. Consider outcomes: what could cause you to terminate the joint venture, and what is the preferred exit strategy.
国际合作与战略管理
为实现一个成功的合资企业，人力资源所采取的行动步骤
商业计划
首先要有一个缜密的战略计划。在行动之前，确定并解释为什么要成立合资企业，为什么要选择这个合作伙伴以及我们希望达到什么样的目标。定义合作伙伴的所有权（管理上的，资金，等）以及该合资企业的寿命。定义管理、责任以及决策过程并说明解决冲突及各类问题的程序。确保大宗买卖以及高层事物的各方参与。考虑结果：什么会导致你终止合资企业，什么是你首选的退出方式。
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Human Resources (HR) Strategy
Develop HR strategies that align and support the goals of the JV: develop a distinct identity and culture for the new organization; communicate aggressively to employees; and establish distinct career paths, management, and a means of return for employees transferring to the JV. Create compensation, incentive, and retention programs tied to the success of the JV. Maintain open communication between the HR departments of the partners and the JV.
国际合作与战略管理
人力资源策略
发展支持合资企业目标并与之一致的人力资源战略：建立清晰的企业文化并积极在员工中推行; 建立清晰的职业发展路径以及与企业的成功息息相关的补偿机制，激励机制以及保持机制。并保持与合作伙伴人力资源部门的沟通与联系。
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Leadership
Define a process for leadership selection that's seen as fair and credible, and name top-tier leadership as soon as possible. Look for key indicators of leadership potentials such as behavior, past experience, and measurable outputs.
国际合作与战略管理
领导层
提供一种选择领导人的公平可信的方法，可尽快的任命高层领导。关注一些潜在的关键特征，如行为举止，工作经验，工作业绩等。
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Communication
To engage and motivate your employees, communication should be frequent and used to create a common vision, establish a connection with leadership, explain the new rules, support the individual transition process, aid in retention, and ultimately, define the new organization in terms of "We" instead of an "It" or "They". Share as much information as you can, and never make false promises.
国际合作与战略管理
沟通
为激励员工，沟通是日行工作中必不可少的一项工作：建立与领导层之间的联系，解释新的规章制度，服务于员工的升迁，使公司具有一种凝聚力，并最终使员工在新的合资公司使用“我们”这样的术语，而不是“他”或是“他们”。和员工们分享你的信息，永远不要做出不能兑现的承诺。
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Talent
Make the identification, retention, and motivation of the key talent a top priority.
Know the employees’ motivators and de-motivators.
Structure programs to ensure retention.
国际合作与战略管理
人才
给与重要人才在认同，保留以及激励方面的优先考虑。
了解员工的促进因素与非促进因素
建立起确保可留住员工的计划
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Partner selection
A company will only benefit from a JV if the partner it selects has the skills and knowledge to help it meet its strategic objectives. Partner selection is especially significant in dynamic and complex markets, because the right partner can make the venture more adaptable, improve the strategy-environment configuration for both companies, and reduce uncertainty.
国际合作与战略管理
选择合作伙伴
如果所选择的合作伙伴能够帮助公司达到合资公司的战略目标，那么此公司将能从中获利。合作伙伴的选择在动态的及复杂的市场中尤为重要, 因为一个好的合作伙伴将使这个合资公司更具适应性，提高两个公司的战略环境配置并减少不确定性。
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Partner selection plays a pivotal role in JV formation. A company's motives will determine the type of partner it selects. If only a few partners with the right characteristics are available, this may affect the scope and objectives of the JV. Several of the most important criteria are access to knowledge, trust, reputation and status.
国际合作与战略管理
选择合作伙伴在建立合资公司的过程中起着关键的作用. 企业的动机将决定它所选的合作伙伴的类型. 如果仅仅有很少的合作伙伴满足要求，将会影响到合资公司的规模和目标。几个重要的标准都有权得到知识、信任、声誉以及地位。
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Local Partners
Knowledge of local market.
Familiarity with government bureaucracies and regulations.
Understanding of local labor markets.
Existing manufacturing facilities.
Foreign Partners
1. Advanced process and product technologies
2. Management know-how, and
3. Access to export markets.
Both Partners - lower capital than going it alone.
国际合作与战略管理
当地的合作伙伴
对当地市场的了解.
熟悉政府机构以及政策法规.
了解当地劳动市场.
拥有制造业设备.
国外的合作伙伴
先进的流程及产品技术.
管理技巧.
拥有出口市场.
合资双方 – 都比自己经营要降低成本.
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Broadly speaking, partner selection is based on two criteria:
Task-related criteria
Partner-related criteria
国际合作与战略管理
一般来讲, 选择合作伙伴有以下两个标准:
任务相关标准。
合伙人相关标准。
International Cooperation
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Task-related criteria are the strategic competencies to which a potential partner provides access.
Product knowledge.
Market knowledge.
Regulatory knowledge.
Distribution channels.
Partner-related criteria are the organizational features that determine the desirability of collaboration.
Collaborative know-how.
How closely the partner's business relates to your own, and
Size of the partner company.
国际合作与战略管理
任务相关标准是一个合作者所表现出的战略方面的能力：
产品知识.
市场知识.
管理的知识.
分销渠道.
合伙人相关标准是组织性特征体现合作的愿望：
合作诀窍.
合作伙伴业务与你业务的相关程度.
合作伙伴公司的规模.
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Task-related and partner-related criteria can be ranked in the following order of importance:
Task-related criteria:
Access to local market knowledge
Access to links with major suppliers/buyers
Access to distribution channels
Access to local cultural knowledge
Access to product-specific knowledge
国际合作与战略管理
任务相关标准与合伙人相关标准按照重要程度排序如下：
任务相关标准:
有权知道本地市场的相关情况
有权与重要的供应商与买家联系
有权利用分销渠道
有权知道当地市场的文化背景
有权知道产品详细而准确的知识
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Task-related criteria:
Access to local regulatory knowledge
Access to technology
Access to capital
Access to materials/natural resources
Access to production knowledge
国际合作与战略管理
任务相关标准:
有权知道当地的管理知识
有权利用技术
有权使用资金
有权使用原料以及天然资源
有权知道生产知识
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Partner-related criteria:
Trust between top management teams
Relatedness of partner business
Partner's reputation
Partner's financial status
Partner's company size
Degree of favourable past experience with partner
国际合作与战略管理
合伙人相关标准:
高层管理团队之间互相信任
与合伙人业务之间的相关性
合作者的声誉
合作者的财务状况
合作者的公司规模
过去与合作者合作的顺利程度
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Partner-related criteria:
Marketing/distribution capabilities
Partner's international experience
Experience in technology application
Potential for new technology development
Partner's technological sophistication
Partner's ability to negotiate with local government
国际合作与战略管理
合伙人相关标准:
买卖/分销能力
合伙人的国际性经验
技术运用方面的经验
新技术发展潜力
合作者的科技混含性
合作者与当地政府的沟通能力
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What is Culture?
Concerned with beliefs and values on the basis of which people interpret experiences and behave individually and in groups.
A group or community with which you share common experiences that shape the way you understand the world.
“Lens" through which you view the world.
Central to what you see.
How you make sense of what you see.
How you express yourself.
The same person, can belong to several different cultures depending on certain factors: birthplace; nationality; ethnicity; family status; gender; age; language; education; physical condition; sexual orientation; religion; profession; place of work and its corporate culture.
国际合作与战略管理
什么是文化？
与人们作为诠释经历，修身的基础的信仰和价值观念相关的，个人或团体的。
以你理解世界的方式与之分享共同经历的团体或社会。
你看世界所使用的‘镜头’。
抓住你所看到的问题的核心
对你所看到的而言，重要的是你如何理解它
你如何表达自己。
因此，同一个人可能属于不同的文化，根据不同的特点：出生地；国籍；种族；家庭情况；性别；年龄；语言；教育; 身体条件；性取向；宗教；职业；工作地及其公司文化。
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Four Cultural Dimensions
Cultures - both national and organizational - differ along many dimensions. Four of the most important are:
Directness (get to the point vs. imply the messages)
Hierarchy (follow orders vs. engage in debate)
Consensus (dissent is accepted vs. unanimity is needed)
Individualism (individual winners vs. team effectiveness)
国际合作与战略管理
四种文化特点
文化－－无论是国家的或组织的－－在很多特点上都各不相同。最重要的四点有：
直接（切入重点VS．婉转暗示）
阶级 (习惯服从 vs. 喜欢争论)
一致性 (允许不同意见 vs. 需要全体一致的意见)
个人主义 (个人英雄主义 vs. 团队效益)
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Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Difference
Different communication styles
Different attitudes towards conflict
Different approaches to completing tasks
Different decision-making styles
Different attitudes towards disclosure
Different approaches to knowing
国际合作与战略管理
文化差异的六种基本类型
不同的沟通方式
对待矛盾的不同态度
完成任务的不同手段
不同的决策风格
对曝光的不同态度
不同的认识方法
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Cross-Cultural Communication: Hopes and Fears
Hopes:
the possibility of dialogue
learning something new
developing friendships
understanding different points of view
Fears:
being judged
miscommunication
patronizing or hurting others intentionally
国际合作与战略管理
跨文化交流：希望与恐惧
希望：
对话的可能性
学习新鲜事物
培养友谊
理解不同观点
恐惧：
被评判
错误传达
故意伤害其他人或盛气凌人
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Cross-Cultural Communication Challenges
Culture is often at the root of communication challenges. Exploring historical experiences and the ways in which various cultural groups have related to each other is key to opening channels for cross-cultural communication. Becoming more aware of cultural differences, as well as exploring cultural similarities, can help you communicate with others more effectively. Next time you find yourself in a confusing situation, ask yourself how culture may be shaping your own reactions, and try to see the world from the other's point of view.
国际合作与战略管理
跨文化交流的挑战
文化经常是交流挑战的根源。探索以往的经验及各种文化团体相互关联的方式是打开跨文化交流渠道的关键。更加了解文化差异并且探索文化间的相似之处，可以帮助你更加有效的与人沟通。下一次，当自己处在一个比较尴尬的境地的时候，问问自己文化是怎样决定了你的反应，并试着去从别人的角度看世界。
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Culture Shock
Failure to identify cultural issues and take action can lead to a culture shock. In order of priority, the most common symptoms:
feeling isolated
anxiety and worry
reduction in job performance
high nervous energy
helplessness
Not coping with culture shock symptoms when they appear can lead to a very negative situation.
国际合作与战略管理
文化冲击
无法识别文化问题并采取相应的行动会导致文化冲击。按照优先顺序，最普遍的症状有：
感觉孤立
焦虑不安
工作表现下降
精神高度紧张
无助
文化冲击的症状出现而不加以处理会导致非常被动的局面。
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"Tact is the ability to describe others as they see themselves"
- Abraham Lincoln
国际合作与战略管理
‘外交手腕就是把别人说成他们自己眼里的样子的能力。’
- 亚伯拉罕 • 林肯
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Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration
Learn from generalizations about other cultures
Don't use generalizations to stereotype.
To understand better.
Appreciate other multifaceted human beings.
Practice, practice, practice.
Don't assume that yours is the only ‘right way’ to communicate
Keep questioning your assumptions.
Communicate trust.
Build rapport by talking in your client's preferred mode.
Search for ways to make the communication work, do not search for who should receive the blame for the breakdown.
国际合作与战略管理
跨文化合作的指导原则
从其他文化的普遍性中学习
不要把普遍性用于制定成规。
更好地去理解．
欣赏其他多元的人们。
实践实践再实践。
不要认定自己的才是‘唯一正确’的沟通方式
不断质疑自己的假设。
互相信任。
用顾客更愿意接受的方式谈话以建立融洽的关系。
寻找能够有效沟通的方法，不要一味寻找应该受到责备的一方。
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Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration
Listen actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes.
Honor others' opinions about what is going on.
Suspend judgment, and be objective.
Honest acknowledgment of the mistreatment that has taken place on the basis of cultural difference is vital for effective communication. Use this as an opportunity to develop trust.
Awareness of current power imbalances is necessary to understand each other and work together.
Remember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular individual. We are all more complicated than any cultural norm could suggest.
国际合作与战略管理
跨文化合作的指导原则
主动的满怀同情的倾听。试着把自己放在他人的位置上考虑问题。
尊重其他人对事情的看法。
不急于下结论，要客观。
坦诚由于文化差异造成的过失对有效的沟通至关重要。 把它作为培养信任的好机会。
明白现存的力量不平衡对于相互理解及合作是必要的。
记住文化标准可能不适合某一特定个体的行为。大家都比文化标准暗示的复杂得多。
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Respect Differences and Work Together
When we do not understand, people tend to interpret the others involved as "abnormal", "weird" or "wrong".
Awareness of cultural differences and recognizing where cultural differences are at work is the first step toward understanding each other.
No right, no wrong, just different creates a positive working environment.
国际合作与战略管理
尊重差异，协同工作
我们不能理解时会倾向于把其他有关人等说成‘不正常’，‘怪异’，或‘不正确’。
在工作中意识到文化差异，并认识到文化差异的所在是通向相互理解的第一步。
无所谓对与错，只是建立不同的积极的工作环境。
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Harnessing the Power of Diversity
Your competitive advantage in an organizational and cultural context is by seeking to leverage, rather than diminish, opposite forces. Integrating opposites, as opposed to identifying and driving them out, unleashes power. This is true on both a personal level (the balanced manager is more effective than his or her peer at one end of the control spectrum) and on organizational level as well.
国际合作与战略管理
驾驭差异所产生的动力
你的竞争优势，无论是组织还是文化，在于利用对立的力量而不是减小差异。使对立统一，发挥它的力量，而不是相反的，把它们定位为矛盾，消灭它们。这无论在个人层面上，还是在组织的层面上都是正确的。（一个平衡的经理人总是比他/她走极端的同僚更加的有效。）
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Diversity Definition
Diversity: a workplace that includes people from various backgrounds and cultures, and/or diverse businesses.
国际合作与战略管理
驾驭差异所产生的动力
差异：就是一个工作场所包括来自不同背景和文化的人，以及（或者）不同的商业。
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Unleashing the Power of Integrated Opposites
develop innovative services and products for diverse customer groups
Share diverse experiences.
Cultural insights of workers.
creative problem solving
Look at "the same landscape with different eyes“.
Cross-pollination of ideas.
achieving synergy by leveraging the power of critical opposites
国际合作与战略管理
发挥对立统一体的能力
为不同的顾客群体开发新颖的产品与服务
分享不同的经历
员工对文化的理解
创造性的解决问题
‘用不同的眼光看同一处风景’
想法勾通与交流
协调关键矛盾的力量达到增效
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Case in Point: DuPont
A US-based multicultural team at DuPont gained around US$45 million in new business by changing the way decorating materials are developed and marketed. The changes included new colors that team members knew, from their experience within other cultures, would appeal more to their overseas customers.
国际合作与战略管理
案例：杜邦
一支以美国为基础的跨文化杜邦团队通过改变装饰材料的开发与销售方式，在新业务上创造了约4,500万美元的收入。这种改变包括团队成员由他们在其他文化的经历所知的,更能吸引海外顾客的新颜色。
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Case in Point: General Electric (GE)
At General Electric (GE) the sum is greater than its parts as both business and people diversity is utilized in a most effective way. A major American enterprise with a diverse group of huge businesses, GE is steeped in a learning culture and it is this fact that makes GE a unique company.
As Jack Welch puts it: "What sets GE apart is a culture that uses diversity as a limitless source of learning opportunities, a storehouse of ideas whose breadth and richness is unmatched in world business. At the heart of this culture is an understanding that an organization's ability to learn, and translate that learning into action rapidly, is the ultimate competitive business advantage." As Welch noted in his 1996 Letter to Share Owners, "The constant sharing of business experiences and cultural insights, from around the world, is creating a Company whose brains, as well as businesses, are truly global."
国际合作与战略管理
案例: 通用电气 (GE)
在通用电气,由于商业和人员的各异性都得到了最有效的利用，整体的力量总是比各部门大。作为一家业务种类繁多,数额巨大的主要美国企业，GE精于学习文化。正是这一事实使GE成为一家独具特色的公司。
正如杰克.韦尔奇所讲：‘使GE出类拔萃的，是把多样性作为学习的无限源泉，作为包罗万象，无与伦比的点子库的文化。这种文化的核心是一种认知，也就是一个组织学习并迅速把所学付诸行动的能力才是最终的商业竞争优势。’ 如同威尔士在1996年他写给塞尔欧纳斯的信中所说，‘不断分享来自全球的商业经历和文化见解正在造就一家拥有真正的全球头脑和业务的公司。’
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Case in Point: General Electric (GE)
The GE Leadership Effectiveness Survey (LES) provides a framework for evaluation of the corporate leaders that includes, inter alia, the following parameters: "Fully utilizes diversity of team members (cultural, race, gender) to achieve business success" and "Demonstrates global awareness / sensitivity and is comfortable building diverse / global teams."
国际合作与战略管理
案例: 通用电气 (GE)
通用电气领导效果调查(LES)提供了一个评估公司领导者的方案，特别包括了下列因素，‘充分利用团队成员的不同（文化，种族，性别）达到商业成功’和‘体现全球意识/敏感，乐于建立不同/全球团队。’
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Case in Point: Female Color
One employee had a business meeting with a Japanese businesswoman in the office. During the break, the Japanese businesswoman went to the washroom. The employee was surprised to see her opening the door into the "Man's room" which had a big male-silhouette sign on it. The employee warned her, "Excuse me, it's a man's room! Don't you see that sign?" "Yes, I see it," she answered, "but it's red. In our country, a red-colored sign means it's a lady's room. For men, it should be black or blue."
What a cultural difference! The employee pays attention to the sign only, not to its color, and the Japanese businesswoman pays attentions to completely different things. How many such communication gaps have we experienced - without noticing it!
国际合作与战略管理
案例: 女性色彩
一名员工曾因公与一位日本女士开会。休息时这位女士去洗手间，这名员工惊讶地发现她走进了门口有很大的男性侧影标记的男士洗手间. ‘对不起，那是男洗手间！你没看到标志吗？’这名员工提醒她。‘不，我看到了，’她答到，‘但那是红色标志。在日本，红色标志表示女士洗手间，男士的应该是黑色或蓝色的。’
多么大的文化差异呀！那名员工只注意到标志而不是颜色，那位日本女士注意的却是完全不同的事物。在以前的讨论中我们又经历过多少这样的交流沟通呢？而我们甚至没有留意过。是啊，如果我想更有效的交流，我就得更多了解预期顾客的思维习惯和看法。
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Negotiating agreements
Mixed feelings about the formal joint venture agreement.
Some think it a critical element in the relationship
Others discount its significance.
国际合作与战略管理
谈判协议
对与正式的合资公司合同喜忧参半。
有人把这种关系认定是一种边缘关系。
另外一些人则将其重要性打了折扣。
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Importance and difficulty of negotiating points in joint venture agreements
(percentage of respondents noting category)
Important Difficult
Equity structure 80 33
Technology transfer 78 26
Marketing issues 45 28
Staffing issues 44 26
Dividend policy 42 21
国际合作与战略管理
关于成立合资公司谈判时双方的谈判重点及难点(两种不同回答的百分比如下)
重要性 困难性
权益结构 80 33
技术转移 78 26
市场问题 45 28
员工安置问题 44 26
股息分配方针 42 21
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Governance and control
Once a partner has been selected and a contractual agreement negotiated, attention shifts to the integration and governance of the joint venture.
The relationship between levels of integration and degrees of control. The deeper the integration - as, for example, with a merger - the greater the level of control. Distinction between a cooperative joint venture (NEJV) and an equity joint venture (EJV) illustrates this relationship.
The choice of governance structure, determines the overall performance of the JV, overall objective and the partners characteristics.
国际合作与战略管理
管理和控制
一旦合作伙伴被选定并签订了合同之后，注意力便转移到合资公司的管理上来。
融合水平与控制程度的关系. 融合程度越深 – 例如, 合并 – 控制程度就越高. 协作合资公司 (NEJV) 与全合资公司 (EJV) 的差别就说明了这个关系。.
管理结构的选择, 决定合资公司的运营方式及总目标，以及合作者的特征。
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Three Possible JV Governance Arrangements
Full equality: the partners decide policy and operating matters together
Policy equality: the partners must concur on JV policy terms, while one takes the lead in operating matters
Lead partner arrangement: one partner has the lead on policy as well as operating questions
国际合作与战略管理
三种可能的经营管理模式
完全平等: 合伙人共同制定规章制度并管理公司
制定政策平等:合伙人共同制定规章制度,但其中一方在经营管理中处于领导地位
一方处于领导地位: 一方在规章制度的制定以及经营管理中都处于领导地位
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Other problems that frequently arise during negotiations:
Valuation problems
Each partner brings financial and other assets to the joint venture, and it is often not easy to determine what these assets are worth.
国际合作与战略管理
谈判过程中经常出现的其他问题:
估价问题
每个合作者以出资或是其它资产的方式加入合资公司，但是决定这些资产的价值通常不是一件容易的事。
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Transparency
Getting accurate data upon which to base valuations and other decisions can be very difficult.
Particular problem in former command economies.
国际合作与战略管理
透明度
为正确的估价以及其它决策取得准确的相关数据通常并不容易。
以前，特殊的问题决定经济状况。
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Conflict resolution
Many joint venture agreements spell out how disputes between partners are to be resolved.
These provisions are important at worst.
Conflicts can lead to the desire of one partner or the other to dissolve the enterprise.
国际合作与战略管理
关于解决冲突的决议
许多合资公司的合同中都写清楚了关于如何解决合资双方之间冲突问题。
这些规定在出现最坏情况的时候非常重要。
冲突可以导致合作的一方或另一方想要终止合资公司。
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Division of management responsibility and degree of management independence
There is some evidence that protection of a joint venture's management from parent company interference is an important determinant of the venture's success. Attempts by parent companies to micromanage an enterprise thousands of miles away are doomed to failure. A better strategy is to set up clear operational parameters and then let the ventures management succeed or fail on its own.
国际合作与战略管理
管理责任的划分以及独立管理的程度
有证据表明保持合资公司的管理模式而不受合作伙伴公司的干涉是一个成功的合资公司的决定性因素。合作伙伴在几千英里之外试图对合资公司进行宏观管理是注定要失败的。一个比较好的策略是建立清晰的运营参数，这样合资公司自己就可决定成功或失败。
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Changes in ownership shares - very sensitive
How should the ownership structure be changed as a joint venture matures? Most partners agree this should be addressed early on. Developing country partners fear industrial country partners may use to take full control.
国际合作与战略管理
变更所有者份额 – 十分敏感
合资公司成熟后所有者结构如何变更? 大部分合作者同意这应该在合作初期就讲清楚。发展中国家的合伙人常担心工业国家的合伙人会在完全控制合资企业。
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Dividend policy and other financial matters
Best handled when the joint venture agreement is being negotiated.
国际合作与战略管理
股息分配方针以及其它的财务问题
在通过合资公司的合作协议时很好地得到解决。
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Common Reasons for Joint Venture Difficulties
The philosophy governing expectations and objectives of the JV is unclear
There's an imbalance in the level of investment and expertise brought to the JV by the two partner organizations
The senior leadership and management teams for the JV receive inadequate identification, support, and compensation
The joint venture partners possess disparate, and often conflicting, corporate cultures and operational styles
The joint venture's size is modest compared to the two partner organizations
国际合作与战略管理
经营合资企业的难点
合资公司的目标与管理宗旨不明确
合资公司的双方在资金投入与技术投入方面并不平衡
合资公司的领导阶层与管理团队得不到充分的认可、支持与补偿
合资公司的双方各持己见，对待公司文化及运营风格经常有不同的意见
与投资双方的组织结构相比，合资公司大小适中
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Most Common Causes of JV Failure
According to a recent survey, only 44% of CEOs of JVs characterized their ventures as "very successful".
The most common causes of failure cited by CEOs are:
Poor or unclear leadership (49%)
Cultural differences (49%)
Poor integration process (46%)
国际合作与战略管理
导致合资公司经营失败的最常见的原因
根据最新的调查，只有44%的首席执行官认为他们的公司“非常成功”。
首席执行官们所提到的导致失败的最常见的原因有：
领导力差 (49%)
文化差异 (49%)
未能充分融合 (46%)
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Most Common Causes of JV Failure
Other factors that contribute to the poor track record of international joint ventures:
Conflict over delegation of decision-making to the local joint venture management by a foreign partner which sees the JV operations as only a small part of the global picture and is trying to maximize profits globally, while the local partner is trying to maximize profits locally.
Disagreement between the partners over operating policies, strategies, and tactics in the local market.
Differences in the approach of each partner towards management style (decision-making, communication, delegation, and so on) and systems (performance management, accounting, control, and so on)
国际合作与战略管理
导致合资公司经营失败的最常见的原因
国际合资公司经营失败的其他原因：
外方投资者将合资公司看作是全球经营战略的一部分，着眼于全球范围内的盈利最大化，而本土的投资者则更看重本土范围内盈利的最大化。
合资公司的双方在本土市场的经营方针，战略以及战术上存在分歧。
合资双方在管理方式（决策、沟通、授权等）及管理体制（生产管理、会计、控制等）上存在的分歧。
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Operating an International Joint Venture
Operating a joint venture with a foreign partner requires time, resources, and cross-cultural skills. As your joint venture has to compete in its market for people, customers and capital, its human resource, pricing, service, financial and other policies must be tuned to that market. “The resources you place under the control of JV should be only those that are unique to it needs. To minimize costs, all else should be drawn from your firms or bought from outside.” It is often tempting to take short cuts because of resources constraints and the need for speed. Nevertheless, if you wish to minimize the risks inherent in an international joint venture, you must manage the processes with great care.
国际合作与战略管理
运营一个国际性的合资公司
与国外合作伙伴合作运营一个国际性的合资公司需要时间，资源以及跨文化技巧。因为你的合资公司必须要在人员、消费者以及资金等方面进行竞争，合作伙伴的人力资源，定价，服务，融资以及其它政策将转向该市场。“你投入到合资公司中的资源必须是独特的. 为减少成本, 剩余的从你原有的公司中调用或是从外购买.”由于资源的限制以及对进度的要求，只注重眼前的利益是很有诱惑力的。但是，如果你想要减少合资企业内在的风险，就必须谨慎地进行整个过程。
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Marketing and staffing issues
Marketing is critical to the JV’s success. The local partner desires maintaining control over distribution channels and marketing. The multinational company (MNC) partner may view the JV as only part of a larger strategy. Similarly, MNC control of key positions may be seen as
An effort to marginalize it.
Overly expensive.
国际合作与战略管理
市场以及员工问题
市场对于一个合资公司是否成功十分重要。本地的合资者希望继续控制分销渠道以及市场。跨国公司的合资者则将合资公司看作是全球战略的一部分。同样的，跨国公司的合资者对关键点的控制可能被看作是：
一种排斥。
过度的花费。
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Operational problems
Once in operation, JV may experience various unforeseen problems.
国际合作与战略管理
运营问题
在运营过程中，合资公司可能会经历这样或那样的各种不可预见的问题。
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Problems related to multi-nationality
An MNC may hope the joint venture will operate in a way that will be optimal from the standpoint of its entire global network, not merely within the local market on which their domestic joint venture partner usually focuses. These differing objectives can lead to a variety of disagreements.
国际合作与战略管理
关于多国籍所出现的问题
跨国公司的合资者希望站在全球的角度，以一 种最佳的方式来运营合资公司；而不是向其本 土的合作伙伴那样仅仅注重当地的市场。这种 不用的出发点可能会导致合作者之间很多意见 不一致。
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Export rights
The MNC normally prefers not to allow the joint venture to export products.
The developing country partner wants to expand into foreign markets.
国际合作与战略管理
* 出口问题
跨国公司的合资者通常不希望合资公司出口产品。
而发展中国家的合资者则希望产品能够进入国外市场。
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How joint ventures can adjust: Manufacturing consumer electronics products in India
One joint venture included in our study had brought together Indian and US partners to manufacture a consumer electronics product. The joint venture was established with a clear division of responsibilities, and, at the beginning, its target market was India. Since the Indian partner had existing complementary products, it was agreed that this company would be responsible for marketing and distribution channel development, while the US side would supply product and process technologies.
国际合作与战略管理
如何调整合资公司: 印度的电子产品制造业
我们所研究的一个合资公司是印度与美国的制造消费性电子产品的合资公司。该合资公司责任分工明确，其早期目标市场为印度。由于印度合作者有补足产品，合资公司获得了在市场以及分销渠道方面的发展，美国合作者负责提供产品加工技术及流程管理。
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The joint venture has been enormously successful, manufacturing high-quality products throughout the country. Now the question of exporting these products has arisen. The agreement specifies that exporting must be done through the US partner--a multinational company that distributes similar products, manufactured in plants in a variety of countries, through its worldwide network. The difficult question now arising is how the Indian joint venture's products can best be exported through the US company's existing distribution structure.
国际合作与战略管理
这个合资公司经营的十分成功，全国范围内都有其高质量的产品。之后就出现了涉及出口的问题。合同规定出口必须通过美方合作者－一个在不同国家制造类似产品并负责销售的国际性公司。最难的问题出现了：印度公司的产品如何在美国公司的销售结构中很好的出口？
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This evolving problem is one that has been confronted by countless other joint ventures, and, judging from their accumulated experience, the solution is likely to be an incremental one. First, exports will probably be shipped, through the US parent, to regions not now covered by its distribution network. If that works out, then the joint venture could be asked to supply products ancillary to the US firm's main product lines--line fillers, so to speak--that would be distributed through its normal channels of distribution. As the joint venture's volume increases and the quality of its output improves, its costs could come down to those of other, now much larger, manufacturing plants in the MNC partner's system. At that point, a decision would need to be made as to whether to include the joint venture as part of the US company's global sourcing network.
国际合作与战略管理
这是一个很多合资公司都曾遇到过的问题，并且，根据以往的经验，找不到现成的解决方法。 首先，美方可能将产品通过海运运到一个以前没有销售点的地区。那么合资公司将成为美方产品链中的一个环节，也就是美方正常销售渠道的一个部分。随着合资公司产品销售数量的增加以及质量的提高，其他成本降低，将成为跨国公司合作者工厂的一部本。从这点来讲，合资公司是否要成为跨国公司合作者的一个原料加工地是需要重点考虑的问题。
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When joint venture partners disagree
Need for care in negotiating and, when necessary, renegotiating joint venture agreements.
国际合作与战略管理
当合作双方出现意见分歧
需要通过谈判解决，必要的时候，重新谈判合资公司的协议。
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All worked smoothly until recently, when new management in the foreign partner called for a new strategy that would, once again, involve trying to establish the company on its own. The negotiated agreement between the joint venture partners prevents such an attempt, however, because it reserves to the joint venture any local product manufacturing and sales. No resolution to this dilemma had been found at the time of the IFC's study.
国际合作与战略管理
一切都进展得很顺利，直到最近，外方合作者的新的管理层决定由外方完全控制公司。合作双方的协议将会对其进行约束, 然而, 由于其将本土所有的制造以及销售都留给合资公司，即便是国际金融组织所进行的研究中也为能对这种情况找到合适的解决办法。
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In a second case, a provision in the agreement setting up a joint venture in Turkey to manufacture automotive components called for all export sales to be made through the foreign partner, and this eventually became a constraint for the joint venture. The venture, which made products carrying the foreign company's well-known brand, originally made products for only the domestic market. As time went on, however, the venture's products became internationally competitive, both in quality and in price, and there was perhaps a natural inclination to take advantage of this competitiveness by beginning exports to Europe.
国际合作与战略管理
第二个案例，土耳其的一家生产汽车零部件的合资企业，通过外方合资者进行产品的对外出口，但这却成为制约该公司发展的一个重要因素，起初，该公司利用外方的知名品牌在本国市场内进行销售，随着公司的发展，产品不论是在质量上还是价格上都已具有国际竞争力，企业自然而然的想到要向欧洲出口自己的产品。
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Unfortunately, the foreign partner's headquarters and main factories were in Europe, and it had little interest in displacing its own production with Turkish-made items, despite what appeared to be clear cost advantages. Time may change the foreign partner's viewpoint and provide a stronger incentive for modification of the joint venture agreement, but in the meantime, the venture's ability to expand its sales beyond Turkey's borders will remain tightly circumscribed.
国际合作与战略管理
不太凑巧的是, 外方合作者的公司总部以及主要的工厂都在欧洲，尽管具有成本低方面的优势，但他们并不想用土耳其制造的产品来代替自己的产品。时间也许会改变外方合作者的观点并重新修订合作协议，但在此期间，合资企业想要外销仍会受到严格的限制。
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* Tax issues
An MNC generally wishes to minimize its worldwide tax burden. A strategy may not in the interests of the local partner.
* Dividend and investment policies
国际合作与战略管理
* 关于税的问题
跨国公司合作者希望能够最大限度的将低其税务负担。本土合作者可能对此并不感兴趣
* 股息以及利息政策
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* Differences in partner size
The local partner is likely to be considerably smaller than the MNC partner.
Concerns:
1. Capital
2. Focus
3. Importance
国际合作与战略管理
* 合作者规模的不同
本土的合作者通常要比外方合作者规模小
涉及到：
1. 资金
2. 着眼点
3. 重要性
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Ownership and control problems
One problem that frequently arises in the management of joint ventures occurs when an owner's attitude changes. For example, the local partner might be a closely held family corporation in which the driving force behind formation of the venture has come from the family patriarch, often the founder of the company. Not infrequently, the partner's commitment to the venture changes materially when the patriarch is succeeded by other family members who may not share his original interest. Similar attitudinal shifts can occur in MNC partners when their management, or even their ownership, changes.
国际合作与战略管理
所有权问题以及控制问题
合资公司管理中当所有者的态度变化时经常出现的一个问题。例如，本土合作者可能是一个家族企业，企业的领导力来自家族的家长，通常也就是这个企业的创始人。经常会出现这样的情况：家族中其他人继承领导地位，可能会导致重大的变革。类似的变化也可能在外方合作者的公司发生。
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other control problems
* Product line disputes
The interests of the two partners diverge over time, with one desiring to extend the current product line while the other demurs.
* Material and component sourcing
Local, and possibly cheaper, sources of components can emerge, but the MNC partner, which has been supplying them, remains adamant about continuing the supply relationship unchanged.
国际合作与战略管理
其它控制问题
* 关于生产线的纠纷
合作双方随着时间的推移出现分歧，一方希望扩大现有的生产线，而另一方则持不同意见。
* 原料来源
本土的原料也许更便宜，但是外方合作者使用它所提供的原材料。
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* Technology utilization
The MNC partner withholds some technologies, to the perceived detriment of the joint venture. Or new technology extensions developed within the venture are prevented from being used more widely by the MNC partner's management.
国际合作与战略管理
* 技术利用
外方掌握的一些技术，对合资企业有一定的损坏。随着新技术的出现，然而外方公司却阻止在合资公司内使用新的生产技术。
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* Cultural problems
Joint venture managements often are drawn from different cultures, and misunderstandings can occur for that reason alone. MNC executives assigned to a joint venture can be seen by local nationals as "arrogant" or "narrow-minded" individuals who are not able or willing to comprehend the nuances of the culture where the venture's business is being done. For their part, MNC managers may dislike some business practices that they view as unacceptable and deeply embedded corruption that local nationals might see as quite normal. At the root of such problems is the fact that common events can be interpreted in different ways by individuals from different countries (or companies). This can be a particular problem in transition economies, where the economic and political system may persist in transmitting ambiguous signals to individuals on what behavior is expected of them.
国际合作与战略管理
* 文化问题
合资公司的管理经常陷入不同的文化当中, 由此也会引发一些误会。外方公司的经理们由于不能或是不愿企业所在地不同文化的细微差别常被认为是“傲慢的”、“眼界不开阔” 。对于外方经理们来说，他们不接受在他们看来是腐败的一些商业行为，而本土合作者则认为很正常。这类问题的根源就是不同国家（或公司）的人相同的事情可能持有不同的理解和态度。这是转型的经济形势下所出现的问题，经济与政治体系对个人的行为规范指导的不确定性。
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Conclusions
lessons learned in this study are as follows:
国际合作与战略管理
结论
我们可以从中得到一下结论:
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* Although no joint venture agreement can serve as a substitute for the commitment of the partners, even deeply committed partners can expect to have conflicts. A suitable agreement, therefore, is a vital component of a successful relationship. Such an agreement does not have to be an overly legalistic document to provide the basis for overcoming these future conflicts in an orderly manner.
国际合作与战略管理
* 尽管合资公司的协议不能解决所有的问题，即使是最遵守承诺的合作者之间也可能会出现冲突。但是一个合适的协议绝对是成功合作关系的一个重要组成部分。可以帮助有秩序的解决双方产生的冲突。
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* The agreement is best considered as a "living" document, in the sense that among its provisions should be procedures for changing the agreement. Partners need to realize at the outset that their respective comparative advantages in the joint venture can change over time. Such ventures, after all, necessarily entail power relationships. Wise partners make sure that their companies are vital to the venture's success over the long run. It is not sufficient for firms to depend on their intimate knowledge of government affairs or familiarity with local financial markets if they wish to have continuing relevance to the joint venture, since the perceived value of these contributions is bound to erode over time; more substantive advantages--technology, distribution channel control, export control, etc.--will be required.
国际合作与战略管理
* 协议最好被看成是一个“活的”文件, 合资这应该在最初就意识到，随着企业的发展各方的优势将有所变化，协议将会在基础上被修改。明智的合资者一定要确立自己在合资企业的长期发展中的重要性。企业的发展过分的依靠与政府的关系或是对当地市场的熟悉是不行的，因为这些将会随着时间的推移慢慢减弱; 更实质性的优势－技术，销售渠道控制，出口控制等，才是真正所需的。
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* Technology transfer is one of the more sensitive and difficult issues confronting joint venture managements. Although the relevant provisions of the venture agreement provisions are important in establishing an operational framework, technology is one area where formal provisions cannot serve as an adequate substitute for good will and understanding between the partners.
国际合作与战略管理
* 技术转移是合资公司的管理中一个重要且敏感的问题。尽管合作协议中相关条款重点规定了操作框架，技术转移仍然是一个不能被正式的条款以及合作双方理解的所代替领域。
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* Agreements need to contain fairly detailed provisions covering dispute resolution and, in the event of failure to reconcile differences, the exit mechanism to be employed in terminating the joint venture. Negotiation of such provisions should not be avoided because of an optimistic belief that good relations will be maintained over the life of the venture, since trying to resolve disputes in an ad hoc fashion can be highly problematic.
国际合作与战略管理
* 协议中应当包括详细的纠纷解决方法，以及面对失败时消除分歧的方法，终止合资公司的退出方法。协议中一定要包含这些条款，因为以一种特别的方式解决争端将是一个大问题，所以最乐观的估计也就是在合资公司存在的时间内双方保持良好关系。
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Performance
JV performance is difficult to measure. Often linked to objective financial indicators
profitability
growth and cost position
survival
duration
instability of ownership and
re-negotiation of the alliance contract.
国际合作与战略管理
工作状况
合资公司的工作状况很难去测量. 参考财务目标来看
收益性
成长与成本位置
生存
持续时间
所有权的不稳定性
合作合同的再次商讨与谈判.
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But may not be primarily motivated by such factors. Instead, companies may enter for enhancing learning, improving strategic positions, and gaining legitimacy within a larger social context. Goals may not always be fully reflected in objective financial measures. In fact, by measuring the performance on a strictly financial basis, managers run the risk of abandoning it before it realises its potential.
国际合作与战略管理
但也不一定主要有这些因素推动. 公司可能是为了促进学习, 提高战略地位, 或是在一个更大的社会范围内获取合法性. 目标并不一定总是在财务方法中反映出来. 事实上, 通过在严格的财务基础上对工作情况的掌握，经理们对认识到它的潜能之前将其放弃是冒了一定的风险。
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Predictors of JV Success. Success hinges on managing the various aspects of JV development. These aspects or dimensions are linked by general attributes such as trust, reciprocity, opportunism and forbearance. Other important predictors of performance include reputation and collaborative know-how, and effective interaction between people.
国际合作与战略管理
JV 成功的预言. 成功在于管理合资企业发展的不同方面。这些方面被诸如信任，互利，机会主义以及自制等品质相连。关于工作情况的其他重要预计包括声誉，协作技巧以及人与人之间的有效沟通。
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Predictors of JV Success
Effective interaction between people
Trust
Reciprocity
Opportunism
Forbearance (Patience)
国际合作与战略管理
合资公司成功的预言
人与人之间的有效沟通
信任
互惠互利
机会主义
自制(有耐心)
