Module
Knowledge Management
知识管理
Outline of Topics（主题概要）
Importance of knowledge management
知识管理的重要性
Origin and Definition
起源和定义
Types of knowledge and modes of knowledge creation
知识的类型和知识创造的方式
Knowledge creating companies
知识创造型公司
Implementing knowledge management
实施知识管理
Importance of knowledge management (KM)（知识管理的重要性）
Knowledge is a form of capital.
知识是资本的一种形式
The single differentiator that is likely to last is innovation, and the raw material of innovation is knowledge
如果将资本比喻成创新，那么知识就是创新使用的原料
Knowledge + Creativity = Innovation
知识＋创造＝创新
Case -- By 1987, only five years after Canon introduced its innovative mini-copier – 74% of the company's revenues came from its business machines division
例：佳能公司推出袖珍复印机5年后的1987年，公司74％的收入来自商业机器分公司
Formal KM is originated in consulting firms
真正的知识管理开始于咨询公司
Definition （定义）
Knowledge management is the process that helps organizations identify, select, organize, and capture important information and expertise within the organization and disseminate it to wherever it is needed to enhance organizational effectiveness and innovative potential.
知识管理是协助组织识别、选择、组织和获取组织中的重要信息及专门技术的过程，并且将获取的信息和专门技术应用到组织中，以提高组织效率和创新潜力
Research on Knowledge Creation pioneered by Professors Nonaca and Takeuchi of Japan
日本的Nonaca和Takeuchi教授是研究知识创造的先驱
Types of Knowledge and Modes of Knowledge Creation
知识类型和知识创造的方式
Types of Knowledge（知识的类型）
Tacit knowledge -- implicit, resides in experts' heads, highly personal, difficult to communicate.
内在知识－隐藏、存在于专家的头脑中，非常私人的、很难交流。
Explicit knowledge -- formal, systematic, codified, publicly available, and can be easily communicated and shared. ., Product specifications, scientific formula, computer programs.
外在知识－正式、系统、成文、可用并且易于交流和共享。例如：产品规格、科学公式、计算机程序。
Understanding Tacit Knowledge
（理解内在知识）
Philosopher Michael Polanyi: "We can know more than we can tell.“
哲学家Michael Polanyi：”我们所知比所说要多。”
Deeply rooted in action and in an individual's commitment to a specific context
行为和个人活动归根究底有其原因
A master craftsman has a wealth of expertise "at his fingertips“, but is often unable to articulate the scientific or technical principles behind what he knows
一个熟练的工匠拥有很多专业技术“在他的指尖”，但他常常不能与蕴藏在其后的知识和技术原理相结合。
[后续]
Understanding Tacit Knowledge
（理解内在知识）
[续前]
-- The activities of a work group or team
--一个工作团体或团队的行为
-- The kind of informal, hard-to-pin-down skills captured in the term "know-how.“
--专门技术中非正式的、不受约束性技能的掌握
Consists of mental models, beliefs, and perspectives so ingrained that we take them for granted
由智力模式、信念和观念组成，是根深蒂固的、我们必须赞同的
Modes of Knowledge Creation
Combination
Internalization
Explicit
Knowledge
Externalization
Socialization
Tacit
Knowledge
Explicit Knowledge
Tacit Knowledge
To
from
Socialization (Personalization)
社会化（人性化）
From tacit to tacit
从内在到内在
Apprenticeship and mentoring
学徒和老师
Job rotation between departments
部门间的工作轮换
Cross-function project teams
项目组的职责交叉
Internalization（内在化）
From explicit to tacit
从外在到内在
Learning by doing (after formal training and explicit instructions)
从作中学（在正式培训和指导后）
On the job training
在工作中锻炼
Combination（联合）
From explicit to explicit -- process of combining, systemizing and reconfigurating discrete pieces of existing explicit knowledge into a new whole
从外在到外在－联合、系统化和重新配置现有零散的外在知识成为一个新的整体
Supported by Internet, WWW, databases, repositories, search and retrieval technologies.
由Internet、WWW、数据库、知识库、搜索和恢复技术支持
Externalization（外在化）
(Codification) （成文化）(Articulation)（清晰度）
From tacit to explicit – process of capturing and transferring of expert knowledge
从内在到外在－获取和转化专门知识的过程
Ask experts to develop rules and processes based on their own tacit knowledge
要求专家在自身内在知识的基础上获取规则和方法
Knowledge engineers or systems analysts interview experts and extract their expertise
知识工程师和系统分析师会见专家并吸取他们的技术
[后续]
Externalization（外在化）
(Codification) （成文化）(Articulation)（清晰度）
[续前]
Employees document problem solving processes and solutions on the job
员工记录工作中解决问题的方法和方案
Community of practice (on the Internet), chat groups, etc.
实践社区（在Internet上）、交流团队等
Four modes of knowledge creation at Matsushita Electric Company
Matsushita电力公司的四种知识创造模式
Ikuko Tanaka apprenticed with master baker to learn his skills（ Ikuko Tanaka 为熟练的面包师当学徒以学习技能）
She translated these secrets into explicit knowledge that she can communicate to her team members and others at Matsushita（她将这些秘密转化成外在知识，以与她的团队成员以及与Matsushita 的其他团队交流）
The team then standardized this knowledge, putting it together into a manual or workbook and embodying it in a product（团队将这些知识标准化，集中起来装订成册，并应用于产品中）
Through the experience of creating a new product, Tanaka and her team members enriched their own tacit knowledge base（在开发新产品的过程中， Tanaka 和她的团队成员不断丰富他们的内在知识）
Knowledge-creating Companies
知识创造型公司
Metaphor Analogy Model
比喻类推模型
To enlarge the creative space and to link contradictory things and ideas through metaphor（通过比喻开拓创造空间和统一矛盾事务及观点）
Resolve these contradictions through analogy（通过类推解决矛盾）
Crystallize the created concepts and embody them in a model（明确创造性观念并在模型中具体化）
New Product Development at Honda
本田汽车的新产品开发
“Let’s gamble” slogan inaugurated the process with a team of young engineers and designers, charged with the development of a new-concept car, not a cheaper version of Civic and Accord.
“Let’s gamble”开创了新的理念，让年轻的工程师和设计师负责新概念车的开发，而不是那些便宜的大众汽车和普通汽车。
Team leader Hiroo Watanabe coined another slogan - Theory of Automobile Evolution – to express an ideal.
团队领导Hiroo Watanabe 提出另一个口号－汽车发展推测－以表达一种理想
[后续]
New Product Development at Honda
本田汽车的新产品开发
[续前]
This led to discussion and debate and yet another slogan -- Man-maximum, Machine-minimum.
这些引发了讨论和辩论，还有一个口号－最大人性化，最小机械化
Finally, the revolutionary “Tall Boy” Honda City emerged.
最后，革命性的“Tall Boy”横空出世。
Metaphor Analogy Model
比喻类推模型
The Honda case shows how Japanese companies use figurative language and symbols in product development process（本田汽车的例子展示了日本公司在产品开发过程中如何使用比喻方式和符号）
A Metaphor may have multiple meanings or appear logically contradictory, but help to merge different areas of experience within a single, image or symbol.
比喻可能造成多意或出现逻辑矛盾，但能将不同领域的经验统一成一个简单、形象和符号的。
Philosopher Max Black: “two ideas in one phrase“
哲学家Max Black：”一词有二意”
[后续]
Metaphor Analogy Model
比喻类推模型
[续前]
People put together what they know in new ways and begin to express tacit knowledge -- what they know but cannot yet say
人们采用新方法整理他们所知的知识并表示成内在知识－他们理解但不会表达
Effective in jumpstarting the creative process in the early stages of knowledge creation
在知识创造的初期高效的开始创造过程
Implications -- Senior Executives’ Vision
暗示－高级管理人员的想象
Needs to be open-ended and susceptible to a variety of different and even conflicting interpretations
需要容许几种不同甚至是矛盾的解释
Gives employees and work groups the freedom and autonomy to set their own goals
给予员工和工作团队一定的自由和自治权，以达到他们的自身目标
If a vision is too unambiguous, it becomes an order and do not foster the high degree of personal commitment on which effective knowledge creation depends
如果一个想象太明确，它将成为一个规则，阻止人的创造能力在更深层次上的激发，而这是有效知识创造所依靠的
Conceptual Umbrella
Sharp -- “Optoelectronics" to describe the merging of microelectronics with optical technologies Senior managers took up the word and magnified its impact far beyond the R&D and engineering departments in the company
Sharp –“光电子学”是描述微电子学和光学技术的融合，高级管理人员使用该词并将其推广到R&D 以及工程部外的其他部门
NEC -- the metaphor "C&C" (for "computers and communications"), Categorized the company's knowledge base in terms of a few key technologies
NEC -- “C&C” （计算机和通信），采用几个关键技术术语对公司知识加以分类
Kao -- “Surface active science“ Guided its diversification into products ranging from soap detergents to cosmetics to floppy disks – all natural derivatives of Kao's core knowledge base
Kao -- “Surface active science“指导它的产品多样化，从肥皂、清洁剂到化妆品，到软盘－一切自然从Kao的核心知识演化而来
Metaphor Analogy Model
比喻类推模型
Metaphors trigger the knowledge-creation process through intuition and linking conflicting images
比喻通过直觉和统一矛盾现象触发知识创造过程
The next step is analogy, a more structured process of reconciling contradictions.
下一步是类推，一个更加结构化的缓和矛盾的过程
An intermediate step between pure imagination and logical thinking
纯想象和逻辑思考的中间一步
Why is a beer can a useful analogy for a personal copier?
为什么啤酒罐是一个个人复印机的有用类推？
Beer can and Canon personal copier
啤酒罐和佳能个人复印机
Canon was developing a revolutionary mini-copier that is reliable, easy and cheap to make.
佳能开发了一种微型复印机－可靠、简单且造价低廉
Plan to make the photosensitive copier drum (the source of 90% of all maintenance problems) disposable
计划制造可随意使用的感光复印机鼓
The team was discussing design problems over some drinks
开发团队基于一些饮料讨论设计问题
[后续]
Beer can and Canon personal copier
啤酒罐和佳能个人复印机
[续前]
Tanaka (the team leader) held one of the beer cans and wondered aloud, "How much does it cost to manufacture this can?“
Tanaka（团队领导）拿着一个啤酒罐，惊异的叫道：“制造这个易拉罐的成本是多少？”
The question led the team to speculate whether the same process for making an aluminum beer could be applied to the manufacture of an aluminum copier drum
这个问题引发了团队的思索，能否象制造铝啤酒罐一样制造铝复印机鼓
Metaphor Analogy Model
比喻类推模型
The last step in the knowledge-creation process
知识创造的最后一步
More immediately conceivable than a metaphor or an analogy
比比喻和类推更直接想到
Contradictions get resolved and concepts become transferable through consistent and systematic logic
通过协调和系统逻辑，矛盾可以解决、概念可以转化
Makes the knowledge available to the rest of the company
使得知识对于公司的其他地方是可利用的
Strategic Impact of Knowledge Creation at Canon
佳能知识创造的战略影响
Developing low-cost disposable copier drum resulted in new technologies for other office products such as microfilm readers and laser printers
开发低成本的可随意使用的复印机鼓，为其他办公产品引入了一种新技术，如缩影胶片阅读器和激光打印机
By 1987 – only five years after the mini-copier was introduced – 74% of Canon's revenues came from its business machines division
1987年，微型复印机开发后的5年后，佳能74％的收入来自商业机器分公司
Proof the knowledge is a form of capital.
证明了知识是资本的一种形式
Creating knowledge in Organizations via Redundancy
通过冗余在组织中创造知识
The fundamental principle of organizational design in knowledge-creating companies is redundancy in knowledge-creating responsibilities.
知识创造型公司的组织设计的基本原则是知识创造职责的冗余
At Canon, a team is divided into competing groups to develop a variety of approaches and perspectives - principle of internal competition.
在佳能，一个团队分成两个互相竞争组，按不同的方法和观点发展－内部竞争法则
May be wasteful in the short run, but new ideas proliferate and the organization's knowledge-creating ability is accelerated.
这可能在短期内造成浪费，但能带来新的想法并增强组织的知识创造能力
Strategic Job Rotation
战略岗位轮换
A second way to build redundancy to help employees understand the business from multiple perspectives
建立冗余机制的第二种方法可帮助员工从不同的角度理解公司
Makes organizational knowledge more "fluid" and easier to put into practice
使组织的知识更具有“流动性”，更容易付于实施
At Kao Corporation, a Japanese consumer-products manufacturer, employees are expected to hold at least three different jobs in any given ten-year period
Kao公司，一家日本的消费品制造企业，它的员工总被期望在任意10年中至少从事三份不同的工作
Researchers often "retire" from the R&D department by the age of 40 in order to transfer to other departments such as marketing, sales, or production
研究人员一般在40岁时从R&D退休，.投向其他部门，如市场、销售和产品
Free Access of Information
自由访问信息
A third way to build redundancy
建立冗余的第三种方法
When information differentials exist, members of an organization can no longer interact on equal terms, which hinders the search for different interpretations of new knowledge
当不同信息存在时，组织成员将不再受相当条件的制约，这些条件是阻止搜索新知识的不同解释的
Kao does not limit access to information among employees. All company information (with the exception of personnel data) is stored in a single integrated database, open to any employee regardless of position
Kao在公司员工中不对信息访问加以限制。公司的所有信息（个人数据除外）都存放在一个独立的完整数据库中，并对公司的所有员工开放，而不论其职位
Knowledge-creating Roles（知识创造的角色）
Creating new knowledge is the product of a dynamic interaction among three roles
创造新知识是三种角色动态交互的结果
Frontline employees are often caught up in their own narrow perspective and lose sight of the broader context
前线员工常为他们自己的狭隘看法所迷惑，而失去对全局的把握
Senior managers articulate metaphors, symbols, and conceptual umbrella that orient the knowledge-creating activities of employees. They judge and test the value of new knowledge created and ask broad questions:
高级管理人员结合比喻、象征和概念伞，以确定员工知识创造的方向。他们判断并检验新知识创造的价值并提出更广泛的问题：
What are we trying to learn?（我们将要学什么？）
What do we need to know?（我们需要知道什么?）
Middle Managers and Teams
(中层管理人员和团队)
Middle managers provide a conceptual framework that helps frontline employees to make sense of the chaotic market signals
中层管理人员提供一个概念框架，以帮助前线员工搞清混乱市场信息的意思。
Teams play a central role in knowledge creation as its members create diverse points of views and then integrate into a new collective perspective.
团队在知识创造过程中起了核心的作用，当成员提出不同观点时，它便综合所有成一个新的综合观点。
[后续]
Middle Managers and Teams
(中层管理人员和团队)
[续前]
Team leaders are typically middle managers who synthesize the tacit knowledge of both frontline employees and senior executives, make it explicit, and incorporate it into new technologies and products
团队领导是典型的中层管理人员，他们综合前线员工和高级管理人员的内在知识，使其外在化，并将其融合入新产品和技术中。
They are the true "knowledge engineers" of the knowledge-creating company
他们是知识创造型公司真正的“知识工程师”。
Implementing knowledge management (KM)
执行知识管理
Implementing knowledge management (KM)
执行知识管理
Knowledge management concepts（知识管理的概念）
Preparation for KM initiatives（知识管理的初始准备）
Knowledge management strategy（知识管理战略）
Elements of KM practice（知识管理实践的基础）
KM technologies（知识管理技术）
Case studies （示例学习）
Knowledge Management Concepts
（知识管理的概念）
Organizational learning - Creation of new standard operating procedures and business processes that reflects organizations’ experiences
组织学习－建立反映组织经历的新的标准化运作程序和商业过程
Knowledge management - The set of processes developed in an organization to creates, gathers, stores, maintains, and disseminates knowledge
知识管理－在组织中发展的商业程序是为了建立、聚集、存储、维护和传播知识
[后续]
Knowledge Management Concepts
（知识管理的概念）
[续前 ]
Best Practices -- Successful solutions or problem-solving methods developed by specific organization or industry
最好的实践－由专门的组织或行业提出的成功解答或解决问题的方法
Organizational Memory -- Stored learning from organization’s history that can be used for decision making and other purposes
组织存储－存储从组织历史中获取的知识，对决策制定和其他活动都是有用的
Preparation Steps for KM Initiatives
知识管理初始准备的步骤
1) Appoint a chief knowledge officer and create a KM strategy that is linked to corporate strategic objectives.
任命一个首席知识官员并建立一个知识管理战略是与公司战略目标相关的
2) Deploy KM technological infrastructure to enable the process of creating, sharing and disseminating knowledge.
配置知识管理技术的下部组织能够建立、共享和传播知识
3) Strengthen top management commitment by showing them successful KM practice in other companies.
通过展现其他公司成功的知识管理经验加强高层管理
4) Develop a culture and reward system of trust and learning to foster collaboration and innovation. Make employees feel comfortable sharing knowledge
建立信任的文化氛围及回报系统，培养协作和创新。使员工感觉到知识共享的好处。
Knowledge Management Strategy
知识管理战略
Driven by company's competitive strategy
由公司竞争战略驱动
How it creates value for customers（怎样为顾客创造价值）
How that value supports an economic model（价值如何支持经济模型）
How the company‘s people deliver on the value and the economics （公司的人们如何实现价值）
Some companies automate knowledge management (Codification)
一些公司实行自动知识管理
Others rely on their people to share knowledge through more traditional means (Personalization)
另一些公司通过传统方式，依靠他们的员工共享知识
Different Knowledge Management Strategies
不同的知识管理战略
Codification can be the main emphasis for more structured tasks. This requires comprehensive electronic repository of “knowledge objects” to facilitate reuse of explicit knowledge. Examples – Anderson Consulting and Ernst &Young for technology and ERP implementation.
成文化主要强调将任务结构化。这要求全面的“知识对象”电子知识库，以方便的重复使用外在知识。如－ Anderson Consulting、Ernst &Young for technology 和 执行ERP
Personalization can be the main emphasis for less structured tasks. This requires intensive person-to-person contacts, emails, videoconferences, etc. to facilitate exchange of tacit knowledge. Examples -- McKinsey, BCG, and Bain for customized corporate strategy consulting.
人性化主要强调任务的非结构性。这要求加强人与人的交流、电子邮件和视频会议等，以方便内在知识的交换。如－McKinsey、BCG和 Bain for customized corporate strategy consulting.
Codification（成文化）
Knowledge is extracted from the person who developed it, made independent of that person, and reused for various purposes
知识从提出者处获取，并独立于提出者，重复使用于不同的目的
Codification – Ernst & Young
（ 成文化– Ernst & Young ）
Ernst & Young executives have invested a lot to make sure that the codification process works efficiently
Ernst & Young的决策者进行了大量投资以保证成文化运作有效进行
The 250 people at the Center for Business Knowledge manage the electronic repository and help consultants find and use information
商业知识中心有250名员工，他们管理电子知识库以帮助顾问寻找和使用信息
Specialists write reports and analyses that many teams can use
专家撰写报告并分析可使用的
[后续]
Codification – Ernst & Young
（ 成文化– Ernst & Young ）
[续前]
Each of Ernst & Young's more than 40 practice areas has a staff member who helps codify and store documents
Ernst & Young在超过40个领域有成员，他们帮助成文、存档
Resulting area databases are linked through a network.
结果域的数据库通过网络连接
Codification – Ernst & Young
成文化– Ernst & Young
Randall Love, an Ernst & Young partner, was preparing an important bid for a large industrial manufacturer
Ernst & Young 的合作伙伴Randall Love准备对一个大的工业制造商的投标计划
He searched the electronic knowledge management repository for relevant knowledge
它查找电子知识管理库以寻找相关知识
He found and used several previously developed solutions to develop a presentation on the industry
找到并使用以前的几个解决方案以完成行业介绍
He also found and used propositions that helped him estimate how much money the client would save by implementing the system.
同时，还找到并使用相关资料，以帮助预测客户使用该系统可节省多少钱
[后续]
Codification – Ernst & Young
成文化– Ernst & Young
[续前]
Love won the project and closed the sale in two months instead of the typical four to six
在2个月内赢得项目并完成交易，而一般需要4到6个月
He also found programming documents, technical specifications, training materials, and change management documentation in the repository which saved research and development time
还在知识库中找到了设计文档、技术规格、培训材料和变动管理文件，这便节省了研发时间
Codification saved the team and the client one full year of work
成文化为团队和客户节省了1年时间
Codification:
Creating Value for Customers
成文化：为客户创造价值
Consultants reuse existing bricks while applying their skills to construct something new
顾问在创建新事物时可使用已存在的模块
Customer benefits because the consultants can build a reliable, high-quality information system faster and at a better price than others by using work plans, software code, and solutions that have been fine-tuned and proven successful
客户也从中获益，这是由于顾问能建立可靠的、高质的信息系统，且该系统比其他已很好运行或证明成功的工作计划、软件程序和其他解决方案更快、更廉价
Codification: Turning a Profit
成文化：带来盈利
Reuse of knowledge saves work, reduces communications costs, and allows a company to take on more projects
－重复使用知识可简化工作、减少通信费用且能使公司承担更多的项目
Firms such as Andersen Consulting and Ernst & Young have been able to grow at rates of 20% or more in recent years
象Andersen Consulting 和 Ernst & Young等公司近些年都以20％或更高的速度增长
Codification --Managing People
成文化－管理员工
Ernst & Young and Andersen Consulting hire undergraduates from top universities and train them to develop and implement change programs and information systems
Ernst & Young 和 Andersen Consulting在在高校雇佣大学生，培训他们开发和执行方案改造和信息系统
Using the knowledge management repository, the consultants work through scenarios designed to improve business processes
顾问使用知识管理库完成方案设计以提高商业运作水平
They are implementers, not inventors
他们是执行者，不是发明者
Codification – Not just for Consultants
成文化－不仅仅是给顾问的
Health Care – Access Health（卫生保健－ Access Health ）
When someone calls the center, a registered nurse uses the company's "clinical decision architecture" to assess the caller's symptoms, rule out possible conditions, and recommend a home remedy, doctor's visit, or emergency room trip
当有人向中心呼救，护士便根据“临床诊断体系”诊断呼救者症状，排除可能的病症，并推荐家庭治疗、医师诊断或急救
The knowledge repository contains algorithms of the symptoms of more than 500 illnesses
知识库包含超过500种病的症状情况
The first 300 algorithms that Access Health developed have each been used an average of 8,000 times per year
前300种每年被使用超过8000次
Codification at Dell
Dell的文化
Direct sale of made-to-order inexpensive PCs --Strategy
Invested in a knowledge management system with an electronic repository that specify endless configurations.
Customers choose configurations from a menu, suppliers provide components based on their orders, and manufacturing retrieves orders from the system and schedules assembly
Dell does not deliver highly customized orders, and it raises its prices considerably for orders with special components.
In I997, Dell shipped 11 million PCs. Those systems were put together from 40,000 possible configurations (competitors typically offer only about 100 configurations), Each configuration was used on average 275 times
That level of reuse allows Dell to lower its costs and charge less than the competition
This knowledge reuse model helped the company to grow revenues 83 % annually over the last four years
Personalization
人性化
Focus on dialogue between individuals, not knowledge objects in a database
注重人之间的对话，而不是数据库中的知识对象
Knowledge is shared not only face-to-face but also over the telephone, by e-mail, and via videoconferences
知识是共享的，不仅是面对面的，也通过电话、电子邮件和视频会议
Knowledge that has not been codified and probably couldn't be transferred
知识并非成文化且可能不能被转化
Personalization - Bain
Marcia Blenko had a strategy problem for a large British financial institution
Required geographic and product-line expertise, a broad understanding of the industry, and a large dose of creative thinking
Blenko knew several partners with relevant expertise
She left voice mail messages with them and checked Bain's "people finder" database for more contacts
She connected with nine partners and several managers who had developed growth strategies for financial services institutions
She met with a group of them in Europe, had videoconferences with others from Singapore and Sydney, and attended a meeting of the financial services practice in Boston
Some colleagues became ongoing advisers, and one of the Asian managers was assigned full time to the case team
For the next four months, Blenko and her team consulted with expert partners regularly in meetings and through phone calls and e-mail
In the process of developing a unique growth strategy, the team tapped into a worldwide network of colleagues' experience
Personalization:Creating Value for Customers
人性化：为客户创造价值
Problems don't have clear solutions at the outset
问题在开始没有清楚的解决方法
Consultants seek advice from colleagues to deepen their understanding of the issues
顾问在同事之间寻求建议以加深他们对问题的了解
They create a highly customized solution to a unique problem
他们对特定的问题给出特定的解决方案
Offer clients advice that is rich in tacit knowledge
为客户提供富含内在知识的建议
Clients' problems are difficult and one of a kind
客户的问题是很难解决的且是个不相同的
Personalization – Turning a Profit
人性化－带来盈利
Relies on the logic of “expert economics”
信奉“expert economics”
Knowledge sharing is time consuming, expensive, and slow
知识共享是费时、昂贵和迟钝的
Consultants can charge high fees for their services
顾问能从服务中获取高额酬金
Growth is slow
增长是缓慢的
Personalization – Managing People
人性化－管理员工
McKinsey, BCG, and Bain hire top-tier . graduates to be inventors
McKinsey、BCG和 Bain hire top-tier .的毕业生将成为发明家
These firms also want people who will be able to use the person-to-person knowledge-sharing approach effectively
They recruit with extraordinary care
Partners and senior consultants interview a candidate six to eight times before making a job offer
At Bain, 1 out of 60 applicants gets an offer
Most important training comes from working with experienced consultants who act as mentors
Personalization:
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center
Provides the best, most customized advice, and treatment to cancer patients
A variety of experts consults on each patient's case
Managing the experts' collaboration is, in essence, managing the center's knowledge
Employees work together in 17 disease-specific teams
To make person-to-person communication easy, a team's members are all located in the same area of the hospital. Each team has several face-to-face meetings per week that everyone attends.
Meetings cover basic science initiatives, clinical findings, patient care, and ongoing research
Human resource policy aligned with knowledge management strategy
Top clinicians are attracted by the center's state-of-the-art technology, excellent reputation, and salaries that place them in the 95% percentile
Junior people are hired from top university residency programs and trained as fellows
Hires senior, nationally recognized clinicians who often bring teams of people with them
Personalization – Hewlett-Packard
HP’s business strategy is to develop innovative products
Technical knowledge must get transferred to product development teams in a timely way
The company channels such knowledge through person-to-person exchanges.
Engineers routinely use company's planes to visit other divisions and share ideas on new products
Travel are encouraged, and budgets are not restricted
The company manages effective person-to-person knowledge sharing
With 20,000 employees, HP dwarfs the largest consulting company, Andersen Consulting, which has about 60,000 people
Don’t Straddle
不要同时使用两种策略
Most knowledge consulting firms use both
许多知识咨询公司同时使用两种
codification and personalization to some extent
在某种程度上是成文化和人性化的
Most effective firms, however, concentrate on one method and use the other in a support role
然而，许多公司注重一种方法，同时用另一种方法加以辅助
Executives who try to excel at both strategies risk failing at both
希望同时使用两种战略的决策者要承担两份风险
Management consulting firms have run into serious trouble when they failed to stick with one approach
如果管理咨询公司不能坚持使用一种方法，它将陷入很大的麻烦中
Companies that straddle the two strategies may also find themselves with an unwieldy mix of people
同时使用两种战略的公司将很难处理人员混杂问题
In effective companies, the knowledge management model stays the same even as new products and services mature
高效公司的知识管理模式在新产品或服务成熟时建立
Don’t Straddle 不要同时使用两种策略
What’s the “Right” Strategy?
什么是正确的战略？
Competitive strategy must drive knowledge management strategy
竞争战略必定推动知识管理战略
Three questions to consider（三个需考虑的问题）
Do you offer standardized or customized products?
提供标准化还是个性化产品？
Do you have a mature or innovative product?
是否拥有成熟或革新的产品？
Do your people rely on explicit or tacit knowledge to solve problems?
你的员工依靠内在还是外在知识解决问题？
Don’t Isolate
Knowledge Management!
不要孤立知识管理！
Companies that isolate knowledge management risk losing its benefits, which are highest when it is coordinated with HR, IT, and competitive strategy
孤立知识管理的公司存在损失盈利的风险，在与HR、IT和竞争战略相关的公司尤为突出
What should be your company’s knowledge management strategy?
如何确定公司的知识管理战略？
Knowledge Management Practices
知识管理实践
Common KM Practice
（一般知识管理实践）
Develop a system (., guidelines, incentives, and procedures) for KM cycles in capturing, refining, storing, managing, disseminating, and creating knowledge throughout the organization.
开发知识管理系统的周期包括：捕获、精练、存储、管理、传播和创造知识
Integrate KM into core work processes. Make knowledge capture a required step in key processes (., document problem solutions)
统一知识管理成核心工作流程，知识捕获是核心流程中的关键一步
Assign KM roles (., topic experts)
指派知识管理角色
Common KM Practice
一般知识管理实践
Focus on customer-centric knowledge and core competencies
注重以客户为中心的知识和核心能力
Share and learn from industry best practices.
在行业最佳实践中共享和学习
Establish communities of expertise (networks of knowledge)
建立专门技术团体
Apply TQM methods to enhance quality of knowledge contents.
采用TQM增强知识内容的质量
Establish methods for measuring KM benefits.
建立知识管理盈利评价体系
Knowledge Management Technologies
知识管理技术
IT Infrastructure for Knowledge Management（知识管理的IT基础）
Figure 10-1
Office systems（办公系统）
Manage and coordinate work of data and knowledge workers
管理和协调数据和知识工作者的工作
Connect work of local information workers with all levels and functions of organization
将本地信息人员的工作同组织的所有层次和职能部门相联系
Connect organization to external world
将组织同外部世界相联系
Example: Word processing, voice mail, and imaging
举例：字处理、声音邮件和图象
The Three Major Roles of Offices（办公室的三个主要角色）
Figure 10-2
Document imaging systems
文件图象系统
Convert documents and images into digital form
将文件和图象转化成数据形式
Can be stored and accessed by the computer
能被计算机存储和访问
Jukebox（播放机）
Device for storing and retrieving many optical disks
存储和播放视频磁盘的设备
Typical Office Systems（典型办公系统）
Changes in the Construction Project Management Process（建筑项目管理流程的变化）
Figure 10-5
INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE WORK SYSTEMS（信息和知识工作系统）
Components of an Imaging System（成像系统的组成）
Figure 10-3
Web Publishing and Document Management
（网络发布与文档管理）
Figure 10-4
Knowledge Work Systems (KWS)
（知识操作系统）
Aid knowledge workers in creation and integration of new knowledge
新知识创造和综合中的辅助知识工作者
Requirements of Knowledge Work Systems（知识操作系统的要求）
Specialized tools
专门工具
User-friendly interface
友好的用户界面
Requirements of Knowledge Work Systems（知识工作系统的需求）
Figure 10-6
Computer-aided design (CAD)
计算机辅助设计
Virtual reality systems
虚拟现实系统
Virtual Reality Modeling Language (VRML)
虚拟现实模型语言
Investment workstations
投资机构
Examples of Knowledge Work Systems
知识操作系统的例子
Groupware
组件
Intranets and Enterprise Knowledge Environments
Intranet和企业知识环境
Enterprise information portals
企业信息入口
Teamware
Sharing Knowledge: Group Collaboration Systems and Enterprise Knowledge Environments
共享知识：团队协作系统和企业知识环境
An Enterprise Information Portal（企业信息入口）
Figure 10-7
General KM Technologies
（一般的知识管理技术）
· E-mail
· Search engine
· Intranet and enterprise information portal
· Extranet
· Data warehouse
· Data mining
· Universal database (with image, video, and sound, etc.)
· Groupware (group support systems)
· Decision support systems
· Expert systems
· Case-based reasoning systems
· Workflow management
· Web-based training
Specific Knowledge Management Systems （专门的知识管理系统）
(Document Management Technologies)
文档管理技术
-- "Knowledgeware" technologies focused on developing a knowledge repository.
“智能软件”注重开发知识库
-- Help firms identify, organize, store, and disseminate information and knowledge (increasingly using web technology).
协助公司识别、组织、存储和传播信息和知识
Example: Intraspect
（例： Intraspect ）
Combines a database and a search engine. Users create and collect documents, drop them in "public" folders for colleagues to access. Indices and automatic links are created between employees' public folders.
结合数据库和搜索引擎，用户建立和收集文档，放入“公共”文件夹使得同事都能访问。在员工公共文件夹建立索引和自动链接
IBM
Intelligent Miner for Text（智能文档挖掘）
Includes a clustering tool
包括一个聚类工具
Search for similar documents and themes in a collection of documents
在文档中寻找相同的文档和主题
Can organize documents by categorization
分类组织文档
Includes a web crawler search engine
包含一个web搜索引擎
Feature index that supports proper names, locations, or terms for greater precision (. Washington, . vs. George Washington)
特征索引提供正确的姓名、住址等
[后续]
IBM
Intelligent Miner for Text（智能文档挖掘）
[续前]
Can perform fuzzy and phonetic searches
能提供模糊和语音搜索
Thesaurus support. Comes with a given thesaurus and a user defined one
词典支持，提供给定词典和用户自定义词典
Boolean queries for phrases and proximity searches
布尔查询和近似搜索
Client/Server handling （客户/服务器操作）
Linguistic support for different languages （多种语言支持）
Server Environment: AIT, Windows NT, beta versions for OS/390 and Solaris
服务环境： AIT、Windows NT、 OS/390、 Solaris
Verity
Comprehensive search tools to discover information, accurate content organization to put information in context, and personalization features to automatically recommend documents, locate experts and create user communities.
These three tiers support your knowledge workers with the power to organize, discover and connect people with information and each other.
Example: GrapeVine（例: GrapeVine ）
Users can rank and vote on a document's importance. Highly ranked source documents will automatically escalated to senior managers.
用户能按文档的重要性加以分级，高级资源文档将自动逐步提高给高级管理人员
Other products（其他产品）
Lotus Notes, Docushare, Documentum, Discovery Suite,
Case -- Columbia / HCA
例-- Columbia / HCA
An electronic repository of documents on successful business practices (using MS Index Server) to be shared and searched by 340 hospitals. Good business practices quickly spread.
一个成功的商业实践文档电子知识库将被共享，并被340个医院所搜索。好的商业实践很快被传播。
Case -- Dow Chemicals
例-- Dow Chemicals
-- Use Smart Patent Workbench to analyze 30,000 patents and identify valuable patents Increase royalties by $100 million and more.
使用智能专利工作台分析30,000 个专利并识别有价值的专利，增加$100 或更多的使用费
-- Share and disseminate knowledge to international partners..
共享和传播知识给国际合作者
Case – Amoco
例-- Amoco
-- A group called "Progress" has the responsibility to launch KM
“Progress”有实施知识管理的职责
-- Educate employees on cultural change of sharing knowledge and trust
基于共享知识和信任的文化变迁评价员工
-- Establish "Amoco Common Process" framework to transfer knowledge among business units.
建立“Amoco Common Process” 机构在商业单位间转化知识
-- Require employees to store lessons learned in the repository at the end of a project
要求员工在项目结束后，在知识库中汲取教训
Case -- . Morgan Chase
-- The investment and retail bank has 100,000 employees in 65 countries, with $713 billion in assets
-- Use Personal Web pages for managing corporate knowledge
-- Contains standard HR information and
-- Additional information employees can provide
-- ., "I have experience with securities research in the context of the credit and fixed-income businesses as a research manager,"
-- Employees can search for others by name and keywords (common terminology for common functions)
-- They can also search by name or business unit
-- Regular review and update
Case -- Monsanto (Chemical)
例 -- Monsanto
-- KM was a key consideration in the firm's reorganization (into 14 business units)
知识管理是公司重组考虑的核心问题
-- A KM architecture for both structured and unstructured data and information
同时采用结构化和非结构化的数据和信息知识管理
-- Assign KM roles - topic experts - to contribute and maintain knowledge content on a specific topic.
分配知识管理角色－主题专家－致力和维持专门主题的知识内容
By exploring how the drum actually is and is not like a beer can, the mini-copier development team was able to come up with the process technology that could manufacture an aluminum copier drum at the appropriate low cost
By exploring how the drum actually is and is not like a beer can, the mini-copier development team was able to come up with the process technology that could manufacture an aluminum copier drum at the appropriate low cost
The quality standards for the bread at the Osaka International Hotel lead Matsushita to develop the right product specifications for its home bread-making machine. The image of a sphere leads Honda to its Tall Boy product concept.
The conscious overlapping of company information, business activities, and managerial responsibilities. To Western managers, the term "redundancy," with its connotations of unnecessary duplication and waste, may sound unappealing. And yet, building a redundant organization is the first step in managing the knowledge-creating company.
Andersen Consulting and Ernst & Young, have pursued a codification strategy.
Ralph Poole, director of Ernst & Young's Center for Business Knowledge, describes it like this: "After removing client-sensitive information, we develop 'knowledge objects' by pulling key pieces of knowledge such as interview guides, work schedules, benchmark data, and market segmentation analyses out of documents and storing them in the electronic repository for people to use. This approach allows many people to search for and retrieve codified knowledge without having to contact the person who originally developed it. That opens up the possibility of achieving scale in knowledge reuse and thus of growing the business.
Access Health, a call-in medical center, exploits a reuse model. When someone calls the center, a registered nurse uses the company's "clinical decision architecture" to assess the caller's symptoms, rule out possible conditions, and recommend a home remedy, doctor's visit, or emergency room trip. The knowledge repository contains algorithms of the symptoms of more than 500 illnesses. CEO Joseph Tallman describes the company's strategy: "We are not inventing a new way to cure disease. We are taking available knowledge and inventing processes to put it to better use.”
Strategy consulting firms such as Bain, Boston Consulting Group, and McKinsey emphasize a personalization strategy
The process of sharing deep knowledge is time consuming, expensive, and slow. It can't truly be systematized, so it can't be made efficient. That means, first, that the ratio of consultants to partners in these firms is relatively low-there are approximately seven consultants for each partner at McKinsey and Bain. And second, it means that it's difficult to hire many new consultants in a short period because every new person needs so much one-on-one training. For those two reasons, strategy consulting firms find it difficult to grow rapidly without sacrificing the customized approach
Dr. James Dougherty, its deputy physician in chief, describes this collaboration as follows: "We coordinate intensive face-to-face communication in order to ensure that knowledge is transferred between researchers and clinicians and between different types of clinicians."
The strategy consulting firms we studied all came to grief with document-driven systems. Consultants were tempted to use the systems to deliver standardized solutions, but their customers were paying for highly customized services. When the systems were misused, customers became dissatisfied.
Similarly, firms that rely on codification have run into trouble by over-investing in person-to-person systems. When they over-invest in this way, they undermine their value proposition-reliable systems at reasonable prices-as well as the economics of reuse. That's because their people may feel encouraged to develop a novel solution to a problem even when a perfectly good solution already exists in the electronic repository. Unnecessary innovations are expensive: programming and then debugging new software, for instance, eats a lot of resources. And person-to-person knowledge sharing involves expensive travel and meeting time - those costs dilute the advantage that is created when codified knowledge is reused.
Having both inventors and implementers rubbing elbows can be deadly. The downfall of CSC Index, the consulting company that invented the reengineering concept in the early 1990s, underscores how serious this problem can be.
Do you offer standardized or customized products? Companies that follow a standardized product strategy sell products that do not vary much, if at all. Even Dell, whose assemble-to-order computers vary more than mass-marketed products, sells products that can be considered standardized. A knowledge management strategy based on reuse fits companies that are creating standardized products.
A company sells customized products and services if most of its work goes toward meeting particular customers' unique needs. Because those needs will vary dramatically, codified knowledge is of limited value. Companies that follow a customized product approach should consider the personalization model.
Do you have a mature or innovative product? A business strategy based on mature products typically benefits most from a reuse model. The processes for developing and selling such products involve well-understood tasks and knowledge that can be codified. A strategy based on product innovation, on the other hand, is best supported by a personalization strategy. People in companies seeking innovation need to share information that would get lost in document form.
Do your people rely on explicit or tacit knowledge to solve problems? Explicit knowledge is knowledge that can be codified, such as simple software code and market data. When a company's employees rely on explicit knowledge to do their work, the people-to-documents approach makes the most sense. Tacit knowledge, by contrast, is difficult to articulate in writing and is acquired through personal experience. It includes scientific expertise, operational know-how, insights about an industry, business judgment, and technological expertise. When people use tacit knowledge most often to solve problems, the person-to-person approach works best.
When CEOs and general managers actively choose a knowledge management approach-one that supports a clear competitive strategy-both the company and its customers benefit. When top people fail to make such a choice, both suffer
